MAR 106 Final Exam Flashcards
1
Q
What is a molecule?
A
two or more elements bond together
2
Q
What is a compound?
A
two or more different elements bond together
3
Q
What is an isotope?
A
Different Number of Neutrons
4
Q
What is pH?
A
the measure of acidity
5
Q
Acids
A
substances that dissociate in water and release H+ ions
6
Q
Bases
A
substances that either take up H+ ions
or release OH-
7
Q
What is the charge of a neutron?
A
neutral
8
Q
What is the charge of an electron?
A
negative
9
Q
What is the charge of a proton?
A
positive
10
Q
What are the 5 properties of water?
A
1) Water has a high heat capacity
2) Water has a high heat of evaporation
3) Water is a solvent
4) Water is Cohesive and Adhesive
5) Frozen water is less dense than liquid.
11
Q
What marine organism is the most vulnerable to the negative impacts of ocean acidification?
*What are the consequences if this organism becomes extinct?
A
Pteropods; they are crucial to food webs
12
Q
What are organic molecules?
A
any chemical compound that contains (at least) both carbon and hydrogen.
13
Q
What are monomers?
A
carbon + functional group
14
Q
What are polymers?
A
many monomers bonded together
15
Q
What is dehydration synthesis?
A
chemical reaction that joins monomers into a polymer.
16
Q
What is hydrolysis?
A
chemical reaction that breaks polymers into monomers.
17
Q
What are enzymes?
A
proteins that help speed up metabolism, or the chemical reactions in our bodies
18
Q
What are amino acids?
A
molecules that combine to form proteins
19
Q
What are nucleotides?
A
A nucleotide consists of a sugar molecule (either ribose in RNA or deoxyribose in DNA) attached to a phosphate group and a nitrogen-containing base.
20
Q
What is DNA?
A
a molecule that contains the genetic code that is unique to every individual
21
Q
What is RNA?
A
RNA is a copy, or a transcription, of DNA.
22
Q
What is the reaction called that builds monomers into polymers?
A
Dehydration Synthesis
23
Q
What is the reaction called that breaks down polymers into monomers? Explain what happens during this
reaction
A
Hydrolysis
24
Q
What are the four organic macromolecules?
A
Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acid
25
What are the 4 structures of folding?
primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structure
26
What is the 6 functions of proteins?
-Support
-Metabolic
-Transport
-Defense
-Regulate
-Motion
27
What is the difference between DNA and RNA?
DNA is double-stranded, forming a double helix, while RNA is usually single-stranded
28
What are nitrogen bases?
-cytosine
-guanine
-adenine
-thymine/uracil
29
How are icefishes different from other vertebrates? How do Antifreeze proteins work?
- No red blood cells
- No hemoglobin (oxygen diffuses through skin)
- Antifreeze proteins (AFPs)
- Mutations in a copied protein gene that led to AFPs
- Mutations to hemoglobin genes to render them
dysfunctional
Anti freeze reduces the water's freezing point
30
What are ribosomes?
structure where protein synthesis
occurs.
31
What are cell membranes?
separates the interior of the cell from the outside environment.
32
What are cytoplasms?
all cell contents except the
nucleus (if cells have one).
33
What are membrane bound organelles?
compartments in
cells that carry out specialized functions.
34
What characteristics do all cells have in common?
Ribosomes
Cell Membranes
Cytoplasms
Cytosols
35
What are prokaryotes?
* Domain Archae
* Domain Bacteria
* Shape categories
* No Membrane Bound Organelles
36
What are eukaryotes?
* Protists
* Fungus
* Plants
* Animals
* Membrane bound organelles
37
What is simple diffusion?
passive transport when substance moves across
membrane without transport protein.
38
What is facilitated diffusion?
substance moves across membrane with transport protein. No Energy Used.
39
What is osmosis?
water uses facilitated
diffusion across a semi-permeable
membrane.
40
What are the different ways substances are transported within and out of a cell?
Diffusion, osmosis and active transport
41
What is a concentration gradient?
difference in concentration of some substance between two neighboring regions.
42
What is osmoregulation?
The process by which an organism regulates the water balance in its body and maintains the homeostasis of the body
43
What is an Osmoconformer?
organisms that keep their internal fluids equal to their environment
44
What is metabolism?
all the chemical reactions in cells.
Energy converted from one form to another.
45
Why do cells need energy? How do they use it?
to generate and maintain the biological order that keeps them alive. This energy is derived from the chemical bond energy in food molecules, which thereby serve as fuel for cells.
46
What is ADP? Why is it important?
a biological molecule consisting of one adenine, one sugar, and two phosphates
47
What is ATP?
a nucleoside triphosphate, consisting of a nitrogenous base (adenine), a ribose sugar, and three serially bonded phosphate groups.
when a cell needs energy it
“spends” ATP by removing PO4 group.
48
What is an enzyme and what is its role in chemical reactions?
molecule that catalyzes (speeds up)
chemical reactions without being consumed.
49
What is enzyme denaturing?
occurs when an enzyme loses its native conformation, or three-dimensional structure, rendering it unable to bind to substrate and catalyze product formation.
50
What are autotrophs?
organisms that require
inorganic nutrients and an outside
energy source.
51
What are heterotrophs?
organisms that require preformed organic nutrients
they use as an energy source.
52
What is photosynthesis?
process by which plants,
algae and some prokaryotes harness solar energy and convert it into chemical energy.
53
What are wavelengths?
distance of movement during
complete vibration.
54
What is the electromagnetic spectrum? What type of light penetrates the least in water? Most in water?
range of radiation
Red
Blue
55
What are the two stages of photosynthesis?
Light and Carbon Reactions
56
What is a photosystem? What happens there?
Photosystems are structures within the thylakoid membrane that harvest light and convert it to chemical energy.
57
What is cell respiration?
the process by which cells derive energy from glucose
58
What is an electron transport chain?
can produce ATP by Chemiosmosis
59
What is glycolysis?
reactions that breaks down
glucose to pyruvate.
60
What is Krebs Cycle/Citric Acid Cycle?
series of reactions that
completes oxidation of each acetyl group.
61
What is ATP Synthetase?
catalyze the hydrolysis of a phosphate bond in adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to form adenosine diphosphate (ADP)
62
What is Lactic Acid Fermentation?
a type of anaerobic respiration (or fermentation) that breaks down sugars to produce energy in the form of ATP
63
What are the two methods to producing ATP?
substrate-level phosphorylation and oxidative phosphorylation
64
What other non-glucose molecules can provide energy?
fatty acids and proteins
65
What stage produces the most CO2 being released into the atmosphere?
Krebs cycle
66
What is the cell cycle?
events that occur during one
complete round of cell division.
67
What is apoptosis?
programmed cell death and/or a recycling of cell parts.
68
What is mitosis?
divides a cell into two genetically
identical copies.
69
What are chromosomes?
individual molecules of DNA
70
What is a diploid?
two copies of each type of
chromosome.
71
What are histones?
bind to DNA, help give chromosomes their shape, and help control the activity of genes.
72
What is homologous?
similarity of the structure, physiology, or development of different species of organisms based upon their descent from a common evolutionary ancestor
73
What is the importance of cell death and cell division?
It help balance so that an organism
doesn’t overgrow, shrink or waste energy.
74
How do prokaryotic cells reproduce?
asexually through binary fission
75
How do eukaryotic cells reproduce?
the processes of mitosis and meiosis
76
What are all the steps in the cell cycle and why are they important?
the cell increases in size (gap 1, or G1, stage), copies its DNA (synthesis, or S, stage), prepares to divide (gap 2, or G2, stage), and divides (mitosis, or M, stage).
77
When is it good for the cell to prevent cell division?
when conditions are not favorable, such as when there is genetic damage or the cell is not the right size.
78
What is meiosis?
Cell division that produces reproductive cells in sexually reproducing organisms
79
What is crossing over?
the exchange of genes between homologous chromosomes, resulting in a mixture of parental characteristics in offspring.
80
What is independent assortment?
Independent segregation of genes during the formation of gametes
81
What is random fertilization?
source of genetic variation caused by the unlimited number of possible sperm & egg combinations
82
When does genetic variation occur?
occurs when there is a wide range of phenotypes in a population
83
What happens if chromosomes do not split correctly during meiosis?
nonjisduction
84
What is a genotype?
genetic makeup of an organism
85
What is a phenotype?
physical characteristics of an organism
86
What is heterozygous?
having two different alleles for a trait
87
What is homozygous?
An organism that has two identical alleles for a trait
88
What are Punnett’s squares?
diagram showing the gene combinations that might result from a genetic cross
89
What is a monohybrid cross?
A cross between individuals that involves one pair of contrasting traits
90
What is a dihybrid cross?
cross involving two traits
91
What is DNA replication?
the process of copying a
DNA molecule.
92
What is Replication Fork?
Site of DNA replication on a
chromosome where helicase has broken hydrogen bonds.
93
What is a Leading strand?
the strand of DNA that allows
synthesis in 5’ to 3’ continuously.
94
What is a Lagging strand?
opposite strand of DNA
requires synthesis in segments, Okazaki fragments, which are eventually connected.
95
What is transcription?
the first step in gene expression
96
What is translation?
the process by which a cell makes proteins using the genetic information carried in messenger RNA (mRNA)
97
What it tRNA?
a type of RNA molecule that helps decode a messenger RNA (mRNA) sequence into a protein.
98
What is rRNA?
direct the catalytic steps of protein synthesis — the stitching together of amino acids to make a protein molecule
99
What is a codon?
a sequence of three DNA or RNA nucleotides that corresponds with a specific amino acid or stop signal during protein synthesis
100
What is an anticodon?
a trinucleotide sequence located at one end of a transfer RNA (tRNA) molecule
101
What is translocation?
A genetic change in which a piece of one chromosome breaks off and attaches to another chromosome
102
What is a promoter?
a short region of DNA where transcription of a gene by RNA polymerase begins
103
What is an intron?
a segment of a DNA or RNA molecule which does not code for proteins and interrupts the sequence of genes.
104
What are exons?
a region of the genome that ends up within an mRNA molecule
105
What did Avery et al discover?
Transformation of bacteria was shown to occur when live R strain and dead S strain bacteria were injected into mice and the mice died.
106
What did Hershey-Chase discover?
DNA is the hereditary material.
107
What did Chargaff discover?
A=T, G=C
108
What did Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins discover?
double-helix structure of DNA
109
What did Watson and Crick discover?
the DNA molecule exists in the form of a three-dimensional double helix.
110
What enzymes are needed in DNA replication? What is the purpose of each step?
DNA helicase, RNA primase, DNA polymerase, and DNA ligase
Unwinding
Primer attachment
Complementary base pairing
Fragment joining
111
What is a mutation?
a change in the usual DNA sequence at a particular gene locus.
112
What is a Substitution?
a mutation that exchanges one base for another
113
What is Insertion?
a type of mutation that involves the addition of one or more nucleotides into a segment of DNA.
114
What is Frameshift Mutation?
the insertion or deletion of nucleotide bases in numbers that are not multiples of three
115
What is an activator?
a molecule that increases the activity of an enzyme or a protein that increases the production of a gene product in DNA transcription.
116
What is a repressor?
a protein that inhibits the expression of one or more genes
117
What are small RNA's?
non-coding RNA molecules that can regulate gene expression in both the cytoplasm and the nucleus via post-transcriptional gene silencing
118
What are Proteases?
enzymes that break-down proteins
119
What are Proteasomes?
specialized structures in cells that
contain proteases; where proteins are degraded.
120
What are Regulator genes?
located outside operon, codes
for DNA binding protein that acts as a repressor.
121
What are Structural genes?
genes grouped that code for
enzymes and proteins, transcribed as a unit.
122
What are operators?
Short portion of DNA that controls
transcription
123
What happens when DNA Replication goes wrong?
can cause breaks in DNA
124
What causes mutations?
errors in DNA replication or from the damaging effects of mutagens, such as chemicals and radiation
125
How are mutations inherited?
If a parent carries a gene mutation in their egg or sperm, it can pass to their child.
126
What are the 5 ways eukaryotes can control gene expression?
o Chromatin structure
o Transcriptional control *** most critical step
o Post – transcriptional control
o Translational control
o Post – translational control
127
How do prokaryotes control gene expression?
Operon and define all its parts
128
What is DNA technology?
the manipulation of
genes for some practical purpose.
129
What are Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs)?
an animal, plant, or microbe whose DNA has been altered using genetic engineering techniques
130
What is genetic sequencing?
determining the precise
order of nucleotides of a gene within a DNA molecule.
131
What is the function of the polymerase chain reaction?
rapidly produces millions of copies of a gene from the DNA in a test tube.
132
What is the function of gel electrophoresis?
separates DNA fragments based on length
