Mao's China Flashcards

Question

What was the significance of the First Sino-Japanese War and when did it occur?

Answer 1

The First Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895) was a conflict between China and Japan over control of Korea. This war resulted in a humiliating defeat for China, further exposing the weakness of the Qing government and intensifying calls for reform and modernization.

Answer 2

The Second Sino-Japanese War occurred from 1937 to 1945. This major conflict, which later merged into World War II, had a profound impact on Chinese society and politics. It weakened the Nationalist government while providing opportunities for the Communist Party to gain support and military experience.

Answer 3

Mao Zedong (1893-1976) was the founding father of the People's Republic of China and the leader of the Chinese Communist Party. He led the Communist forces to victory in the Chinese Civil War and established an authoritarian socialist state on October 1, 1949.

Answer 4

The Chinese Civil War took place in two phases: 1927-1937 and 1946-1949. It was a conflict between the Nationalists led by Chiang Kai-shek and the Communists led by Mao Zedong, interrupted by the Second Sino-Japanese War.

Answer 5

The Warlord Era lasted from 1916 to 1928. Following the collapse of the central Republican government, China fragmented into regions controlled by various warlords.

Answer 6

China faced a backward economy largely under foreign control, heavy debt to foreign banks, rapid population growth leading to food scarcity, and severe hyperinflation between 1935 and 1949.

Answer 7

China's rigid feudal system divided society into emperors, nobles, and commoners, creating significant inequality. Resentment towards the ruling Qing (Manchu) dynasty, viewed as a foreign power, intensified as China's problems worsened.

Answer 8

The 1911 Revolution overthrew the Qing Dynasty and established the Republic of China. However, the new republic proved incapable of effectively defending China's interests, borrowing heavily from abroad and conceding to Japan's demands.

Answer 9

The May Fourth Movement was a series of anti-government and anti-foreign protests triggered by China's humiliation at the Paris Peace Conference. It intensified nationalist sentiments and criticism of the existing political system.

Answer 10

The Warlord Era (1916-1928) saw China fragmented into regions controlled by various military leaders with their own private armies. These warlords defied central authority, creating political instability.

Answer 11

The Opium Wars (1839-1842 and 1856-1860) resulted in humiliating defeats for China against Western powers, leading to "unequal treaties" that forced China to surrender sovereign territory and accept unfavorable trade terms.

Answer 12

The First Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895) over control of Korea resulted in another humiliating defeat for China, further exposing the weakness of the Qing government and intensifying calls for reform and modernization.

Answer 13

The Second Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945) had a profound impact on Chinese society and politics, weakening the Nationalist government while providing opportunities for the Communist Party to gain support and military experience.

Answer 14

The Chinese Civil War resulted in a decisive Communist victory, revealing the effectiveness of Mao's Red Army and the inability of the Nationalists to achieve any major victories.

Answer 15

Mao Zedong utilized various legal methods to establish and maintain his authority after the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949. The Common Program, adopted in the same year, served as a provisional constitution that legitimized the Communist Party's rule and outlined the new government’s goals. Land reform laws were enacted to redistribute land from wealthy landlords to impoverished peasants, significantly altering the social landscape and garnering widespread support among the rural populace. This redistribution was not merely a political maneuver but a means to solidify loyalty among the peasantry, who made up the majority of China's population. The Marriage Law of 1950 further exemplified Mao's legal strategies; by promoting gender equality and abolishing arranged marriages, Mao aimed to modernize Chinese society while reinforcing his image as a progressive leader. These legal reforms were critical in establishing a new societal order that aligned with Communist ideals.

Answer 16

Mao Zedong’s consolidation of power was marked not only by extensive campaigns against perceived enemies within China—such as the Three-Anti and Five-Anti campaigns targeting corruption and capitalist elements, and the Cultural Revolution’s violent purges led by the Red Guards—but also by the strategic military annexation of border regions like Tibet, Xinjiang, and Guangdong. The People’s Liberation Army (PLA) played a crucial role in these efforts, enforcing Mao’s policies, suppressing dissent, and physically securing these territories, which Mao claimed as historically part of China. These annexations served to pre-emptively crush independence movements, impose martial law, and create buffer zones against neighboring countries, particularly the USSR, thereby strengthening Mao’s geopolitical control. The reunification campaigns in these regions dismantled local power structures and accelerated assimilation through Han migration and collectivization, mirroring Mao’s broader strategies of eliminating opposition through intimidation, violence, and centralized state control. By integrating military conquest with ideological purges and economic campaigns, Mao used the PLA both as a tool of territorial expansion and internal repression, solidifying his dominance over the Communist Party and the Chinese state by the early 1960s.

Answer 17

Mao Zedong's charismatic leadership was instrumental in consolidating his power throughout China. His ability to connect with ordinary citizens through relatable language and imagery made him an appealing figure among the masses. His reputation as a revolutionary hero was solidified during events like the Long March (1934-1935), where he emerged as a symbol of resilience and determination against overwhelming odds. Mao cultivated a "cult of personality," characterized by widespread displays of his image and quotations that permeated Chinese society. This cult-like following was further enhanced by propaganda that depicted him as an infallible leader who embodied the hopes and aspirations of the Chinese people. His vision for a strong, independent China resonated deeply with national pride, enabling him to inspire loyalty and mobilize support for his policies.

Answer 18

Propaganda was a vital tool for Mao Zedong in consolidating his power across China. The "Little Red Book," officially known as "Quotations from Chairman Mao Tse-tung," became an essential element of this propaganda effort; it was widely distributed and served as a guide for ideological education among citizens. State-controlled media consistently portrayed Mao as a benevolent father figure who cared for the well-being of his people. Revolutionary operas, posters, and films glorified Communist ideals while demonizing perceived enemies of the state. The education system underwent significant reform under Mao's direction; schools emphasized Marxist-Leninist ideology and Maoist thought, ensuring that future generations would be indoctrinated with loyalty to his leadership. This pervasive use of propaganda not only shaped public perception but also created an environment where dissent was not tolerated.

Answer 19

The Hundred Flowers Campaign (1956-1957) initially encouraged intellectuals to express their criticisms of the Communist Party under the slogan "Let a hundred flowers bloom; let a hundred schools of thought contend." However, when criticism escalated beyond what Mao anticipated, he quickly reversed course, leading to the Anti-Rightist Campaign. This backlash resulted in severe repercussions for many intellectuals who had spoken out, with thousands being labeled as "rightists" and subjected to persecution or re-education through labor. The campaign allowed Mao to identify potential threats within intellectual circles while demonstrating his willingness to suppress dissent harshly. This strategic manipulation reinforced his control over public discourse and eliminated significant opposition within educated segments of society.

Answer 20

The Great Leap Forward (1958-1962) aimed at rapidly transforming China into an industrialized socialist society through collectivization and mass mobilization. However, it resulted in one of the deadliest famines in history, claiming millions of lives due to poor planning and unrealistic production targets. Despite this catastrophic failure leading to widespread criticism within party ranks and diminishing public support for Mao, he managed to reassert his authority by scapegoating local officials for failures while maintaining that ideological purity must be upheld at all costs. Following this setback, he launched the Socialist Education Movement as a means to reaffirm control over party members who questioned his policies. Ultimately, while it temporarily weakened his standing within some party factions, it also solidified his resolve to eliminate dissenting voices.

Answer 21

The Cultural Revolution (1966-1976) was pivotal in consolidating Mao Zedong's power by allowing him to eliminate political rivals and reassert control over Chinese society. By mobilizing youth through Red Guards, Mao incited widespread chaos aimed at dismantling traditional cultural institutions and targeting perceived enemies within the Communist Party itself. This campaign led to violent purges where countless individuals were publicly humiliated or persecuted based on their beliefs or backgrounds. The Cultural Revolution effectively silenced organized opposition while reinforcing loyalty among supporters who feared reprisal from both Mao’s regime and radical youth groups. Although it caused significant social upheaval and economic disruption across China, it ultimately served to entrench Mao’s ideology within state institutions while creating an atmosphere where dissent was met with severe consequences.

Answer 22

Opposition to Mao came from various groups including landlords, wealthy peasants, intellectuals, and some Communist Party members. Landlords and wealthy peasants resisted land reform and collectivization policies. Intellectuals often criticized Mao's policies, particularly during the Hundred Flowers Campaign. Within the Communist Party, figures like Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping sometimes opposed Mao's more radical policies, advocating for more moderate approaches to economic development. Religious groups, ethnic minorities, and remnants of the Kuomintang also posed challenges to Mao's authority.

Answer 23

Mao launched extensive land reform campaigns to redistribute land from landlords to poor peasants. This often involved violent "struggle sessions" where landlords were publicly humiliated, beaten, or executed. Millions of landlords were killed or sent to labor camps. Wealthy peasants, labeled as "kulaks," also faced persecution and had their property confiscated. The campaign against landlords was particularly intense from 1950 to 1953, effectively eliminating them as a social class and source of opposition. This process not only redistributed land but also served to consolidate Communist Party control in rural areas.

Answer 24

Mao dealt with party opposition through various means. He used his charismatic leadership and ideological authority to marginalize opponents. During the Cultural Revolution, he mobilized the Red Guards to attack party officials deemed as "capitalist roaders." He orchestrated purges of high-ranking officials, including Liu Shaoqi, who was stripped of his positions and died in prison. Mao promoted loyal supporters to key positions, ensuring his control over the party apparatus. The Lushan Conference of 1959 and the subsequent purge of Peng Dehuai for criticizing the Great Leap Forward demonstrated Mao's intolerance for dissent within the party leadership.

Answer 25

The PLA was crucial in maintaining Mao's power and suppressing opposition. It was used to crush armed resistance during land reform campaigns and maintain order during periods of social upheaval, such as the Great Leap Forward. The PLA intervened during the Cultural Revolution when violence spiraled out of control and suppressed regional rebellions and separatist movements. The PLA's loyalty to Mao was a key factor in his ability to maintain power. However, this relationship was complex, as seen in the Lin Biao incident of 1971, where Mao's designated successor and military leader allegedly attempted a coup before dying in a plane crash.

Answer 26

The Cultural Revolution (1966-1976) was Mao's most extreme method of eliminating opposition. It involved mobilizing young Red Guards to attack "old ideas, old culture, old customs, and old habits." Mao purged party officials, intellectuals, and anyone deemed counter-revolutionary. Schools and universities were closed, disrupting education and silencing potential critics. The Cultural Revolution created a climate of fear and chaos that made organized opposition nearly impossible. It effectively eliminated most visible forms of opposition, but at a tremendous cost to Chinese society and the economy. The violence and disruption of this period led to the deaths of hundreds of thousands to millions of people and had long-lasting effects on Chinese society and politics.

Answer 27

While opposition existed throughout Mao's rule, its extent varied. In the early 1950s, armed resistance from landlords and Kuomintang remnants was significant but quickly suppressed. During the Hundred Flowers Campaign, intellectual opposition briefly flourished before being crushed. After the failures of the Great Leap Forward, some party members opposed Mao's policies, leading to his temporary retreat from power. During the Cultural Revolution, opposition was widespread but disorganized and ultimately ineffective against Mao's mobilization of the masses. Despite these challenges, Mao maintained his grip on power until his death in 1976. The extent of opposition was often difficult to gauge due to the pervasive atmosphere of fear and the effectiveness of state repression.

Answer 28

Mao extensively used propaganda to neutralize opposition. The "Little Red Book" of Mao's quotations was widely distributed, reinforcing his ideological authority. State media consistently portrayed Mao as an infallible leader and father figure of the nation. Education was reformed to emphasize Maoist thought and political indoctrination. Cultural productions like revolutionary operas and artwork promoted Communist ideals and Mao's vision for China. This pervasive propaganda made it difficult for alternative viewpoints to gain traction. The cult of personality surrounding Mao reached its peak during the Cultural Revolution, with his image and words becoming omnipresent in Chinese society. This propaganda campaign was so effective that it continued to influence Chinese politics and society long after Mao's death.

Answer 29

The Korean War was a significant moment in Mao's foreign policy and his consolidation of power. By sending Chinese troops to support North Korea against the United States-led United Nations forces, Mao demonstrated China’s commitment to Communist solidarity and its willingness to stand against Western imperialism. The war boosted Mao's domestic prestige as it portrayed him as a strong leader capable of defending China's sovereignty and Communist ideology. However, the war came at a high cost; over 180,000 Chinese soldiers died, and resources were diverted from domestic priorities. Despite this, Mao used the war to strengthen his control by promoting nationalism and suppressing dissent under the guise of rooting out "counter-revolutionaries" who might oppose his vision for China.

Answer 30

The Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship, signed in February 1950, was a critical element in Mao's early foreign policy. The treaty provided China with $300 million in loans from the Soviet Union and technical assistance for industrial development. This alliance with the USSR bolstered Mao’s regime by legitimizing Communist rule in China internationally and providing much-needed economic aid for reconstruction after decades of war. Domestically, it allowed Mao to present himself as a leader aligned with global Communism, reinforcing his ideological authority. However, tensions later emerged between Mao and Khrushchev over ideological differences, leading to the Sino-Soviet split in the 1960s.

Answer 31

The Sino-Soviet split in the early 1960s marked a turning point in Mao’s foreign policy. The growing ideological rift between China and the Soviet Union—centered around disagreements over Marxist doctrine and Khrushchev's policy of peaceful coexistence with the West—allowed Mao to position China as an independent leader of global Communism. Domestically, Mao used anti-Soviet rhetoric to justify purges within the Communist Party, labeling opponents as "revisionists" aligned with Soviet ideology. This split also led to increased militarization along China's northern border and heightened nationalism, which Mao exploited to maintain control during periods of internal instability.

Answer 32

Mao's relationship with the United States shifted dramatically during his rule. Initially hostile due to U.S. support for Chiang Kai-shek's Nationalists during the Chinese Civil War and American involvement in Korea, relations began to thaw in the early 1970s. The historic visit by President Richard Nixon to China in 1972 marked a turning point. This rapprochement allowed Mao to break out of international isolation following the Sino-Soviet split and secure China's position as a major player on the global stage. Domestically, this diplomatic success enhanced Mao's image as a strategic leader capable of navigating complex international politics while safeguarding China's sovereignty.

Answer 33

Taiwan remained a symbol of unresolved conflict between Communist China and Chiang Kai-shek’s Nationalist government after their retreat to the island in 1949. Mao consistently sought to undermine Taiwan's legitimacy by isolating it diplomatically through alliances with other nations. The Taiwan Strait Crises (1954-1955 and 1958) saw military confrontations between Communist forces and Taiwan-backed by U.S. support—further fueling nationalist sentiment within mainland China. Although Mao failed to reclaim Taiwan militarily, these confrontations allowed him to rally domestic support by portraying himself as a defender against Western imperialism.

Answer 34

China supported North Vietnam during both its war against French colonial forces (1946-1954) and later during its conflict with South Vietnam and U.S.-backed forces (1955-1975). This support included military aid, training, and logistical assistance. While this involvement bolstered China's image as a leader of anti-imperialist struggles globally, it strained resources domestically at a time when China was recovering from internal upheavals like the Great Leap Forward. However, Mao used this foreign engagement to reinforce his ideological credentials among domestic audiences by emphasizing China's commitment to global revolutionary movements.

Answer 35

Mao leveraged foreign policy successes—such as China's intervention in Korea, alignment with global Communist movements, and Nixon's visit—to bolster his cult of personality domestically. These events were portrayed through propaganda as evidence of Mao's wisdom and strategic brilliance on an international scale. His ability to assert China's sovereignty against both Western powers like the United States and former allies like the Soviet Union reinforced his image as an unyielding leader dedicated to safeguarding Chinese interests.

Answer 36

Economic aid agreements formed a cornerstone of early foreign relations under Mao. The Sino-Soviet Treaty provided financial loans that supported industrialization projects such as infrastructure development under the First Five-Year Plan (1953-1957). These projects helped stabilize post-war China economically while demonstrating that Communist policies could deliver tangible benefits. Although relations with Moscow soured later, these initial agreements allowed Mao to consolidate control over economic planning while reducing opposition from those skeptical about Communist governance.

Answer 37

Ping-Pong Diplomacy marked an unexpected yet pivotal step toward improving U.S.-China relations during a period when diplomatic channels were otherwise closed. The exchange began when American table tennis players were invited to compete in China in 1971—a move orchestrated by Zhou Enlai but approved by Mao himself. This event paved the way for Nixon’s visit in 1972 and symbolized China's willingness to engage with former adversaries on its own terms. Domestically, this diplomatic breakthrough reinforced perceptions that Mao remained an indispensable figure capable of steering China through complex geopolitical challenges despite internal struggles such as those caused by the Cultural Revolution.

Answer 38

Mao's foreign policy decisions significantly influenced his power consolidation. Successes, such as China's involvement in the Korean War and improved relations with the U.S., enhanced Mao's domestic prestige. Failures, like the Sino-Soviet split, were used to justify internal purges and boost nationalism. These foreign policy outcomes shaped domestic perceptions of Mao's leadership, helping him maintain power throughout his rule.

Answer 39

Mao's foreign policy successes bolstered his authority. The Korean War (1950-1953) portrayed Mao as a strong leader capable of defending China's sovereignty against Western powers. The Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship in 1950 provided crucial economic and technical assistance, legitimizing Mao's rule. The rapprochement with the United States, culminating in Nixon's 1972 visit, broke China's international isolation and enhanced Mao's image as a strategic leader. China's support for North Vietnam during its conflicts with France and later the U.S. reinforced Mao's anti-imperialist credentials. The development of China's nuclear capabilities in 1964 significantly boosted national pride and Mao's image as a leader ensuring China's security.

Answer 40

Foreign policy failures posed challenges to Mao's rule, but he often manipulated them to his advantage. The Sino-Soviet split in the early 1960s, while isolating China diplomatically, allowed Mao to position China as an independent leader of global communism. He used this ideological rift to justify purges within the Communist Party, labeling opponents as "revisionists" aligned with Soviet ideology. The Taiwan issue, despite Mao's inability to reclaim the island militarily, was used to rally domestic support by portraying himself as a defender against Western imperialism. The Taiwan Strait Crises of 1954-1955 and 1958 fueled nationalist sentiment within mainland China. Even the Great Leap Forward's failures (1958-1962) were used by Mao to reassert his authority, leading to the Socialist Education Movement and later the Cultural Revolution.

Answer 41

Mao's economic policies aimed to transform China into a socialist state through rapid industrialization and collectivization. The First Five-Year Plan (1953-1957) focused on heavy industry, achieving significant growth with Soviet assistance. However, the Great Leap Forward (1958-1962) sought to accelerate this transformation by establishing people's communes and promoting backyard steel production. This campaign led to disastrous outcomes, including a catastrophic famine that resulted in an estimated 15 to 55 million deaths. The failure of these policies weakened Mao's authority and highlighted the inefficiencies of state planning, leading to a temporary retreat from radical economic strategies.

Answer 42

Mao's political policies aimed to consolidate power within the Communist Party and eliminate perceived threats. The Cultural Revolution (1966-1976) sought to purge "capitalist roaders" and reinforce Mao's ideological control by mobilizing youth through the Red Guards. This movement resulted in widespread chaos, persecution of intellectuals, and the disruption of education as schools were closed. While Mao succeeded in eliminating many rivals, the Cultural Revolution ultimately destabilized party structures and caused significant cultural loss, leading to a generation deprived of education and a legacy of trauma within Chinese society.

Answer 43

Mao aimed to reshape Chinese culture to align with socialist ideals by attacking traditional practices and promoting revolutionary culture. The Cultural Revolution targeted the "Four Olds"—old customs, old culture, old habits, and old ideas—leading to the destruction of historical artifacts and cultural practices deemed feudal or bourgeois. Revolutionary art forms were promoted to glorify Communist values. While these efforts aimed to create a new socialist identity, they resulted in significant cultural loss and societal trauma.

Answer 44

Mao's social policies aimed to promote gender equality and mobilize women into the workforce. The Marriage Law of 1950 abolished arranged marriages and concubinage while granting women rights to divorce and own property. While these reforms improved women's status in theory, traditional gender roles persisted in practice, particularly in rural areas. Campaigns like "Women Hold Up Half the Sky" promoted women's contributions but often overlooked their double burden of work and domestic responsibilities. Despite advancements in women's rights during Mao's era, deep-rooted societal norms continued to limit true equality.

Answer 45

Mao's education policies focused on promoting literacy while emphasizing ideological indoctrination. Mass literacy campaigns launched in the early 1950s significantly increased literacy rates across China. However, during the Cultural Revolution, educational institutions faced severe disruption as schools closed and teachers were persecuted for being "bourgeois." This led to a generation of youth who received limited formal education but were heavily indoctrinated with Communist ideology. Despite initial successes in literacy improvements, long-term educational quality suffered due to political interference.

Answer 46

Mao's health policies aimed to improve public health through grassroots initiatives such as the "Barefoot Doctors" program that trained rural health workers. Mass campaigns targeted diseases like malaria while improving sanitation across rural areas. These efforts contributed to a rise in life expectancy from approximately 35 years in 1949 to about 65 years by 1976. However, while public health improved significantly during this period, resource constraints often hampered healthcare delivery during politically tumultuous times.

Answer 47

Mao's agricultural policies aimed to collectivize farming to increase efficiency and production. The introduction of the People's Communes in 1958 sought to consolidate individual farms into collective units. This policy aimed to promote communal living and shared resources. However, the impact was largely negative; the communes faced severe mismanagement, leading to decreased agricultural output. By 1962, the failure of these policies contributed to widespread famine and food shortages across China, highlighting the dangers of radical collectivization.

Answer 48

The Marriage Law of 1950 aimed to promote gender equality by abolishing arranged marriages and allowing women to seek divorce. This law represented a significant shift in societal norms, as it sought to empower women within a traditionally patriarchal society. The impact was profound; while it improved women's legal status and encouraged their participation in the workforce, traditional practices persisted in many rural areas. The law also facilitated Mao's broader goal of mobilizing women in support of Communist ideals.

Answer 49

The Anti-Rightist Campaign followed the Hundred Flowers Campaign and targeted intellectuals and party members who had expressed criticism of the Communist Party. The campaign aimed to suppress dissent and consolidate Mao's control over the party. As a result, an estimated 550,000 individuals were labeled as "rightists," facing persecution, imprisonment, or forced labor. This campaign instilled fear within society and eliminated many voices that could challenge Mao’s authority.

Answer 50

Although initiated by Deng Xiaoping after Mao's death in 1976, the Four Modernizations aimed to improve agriculture, industry, national defense, and science and technology. While this policy was not part of Mao's direct rule, it represented a shift away from his radical policies toward more pragmatic economic reforms. The legacy of Mao’s earlier policies influenced this transition; the failures of collectivization and the Great Leap Forward highlighted the need for modernization and efficiency in China’s economy.

Answer 51

The Lushan Conference was a pivotal event where high-ranking officials criticized the Great Leap Forward's policies. Peng Dehuai, then Minister of Defense, openly challenged Mao’s approach during this meeting. The conference aimed to address economic failures but resulted in a crackdown on dissenting voices. Following this conference, Peng was purged from his position, demonstrating Mao’s intolerance for criticism and reinforcing his authoritarian control over party members.

Answer 52

Propaganda was crucial in promoting Maoist policies across all sectors. Campaigns such as "The Great Leap Forward" utilized posters, films, and slogans to encourage participation in collective farming and industrial production. The emphasis on revolutionary zeal through cultural productions helped shape public perception of Mao as an infallible leader. Propaganda also played a significant role during the Cultural Revolution by glorifying Mao’s ideology while vilifying perceived enemies within society.

Answer 53

Health campaigns aimed at improving public health included initiatives like mass vaccination programs against diseases such as smallpox and efforts to combat malaria through environmental sanitation measures. These campaigns significantly improved health outcomes; life expectancy increased from about 35 years in 1949 to approximately 65 years by 1976. However, these successes were often overshadowed by political campaigns that disrupted healthcare delivery during periods like the Cultural Revolution.

Answer 54

Mao Zedong aimed to promote gender equality as a fundamental aspect of his socialist ideology. The Marriage Law of 1950 was a landmark reform that abolished arranged marriages and concubinage, granting women the right to choose their partners and seek divorce. This law aimed to liberate women from traditional constraints and improve their status in society. As a result, women's participation in the workforce increased significantly, with many women taking on roles in agriculture and industry. The All-China Women’s Federation, established in 1955, played a crucial role in advocating for women's rights and mobilizing them for labor. However, despite these advancements, traditional gender roles persisted, especially in rural areas where cultural norms continued to dictate women's responsibilities. During the Cultural Revolution (1966-1976), many women faced political persecution alongside men, complicating the progress made earlier.

Answer 55

Mao's policies aimed to integrate ethnic minorities into the socialist state while promoting national unity. The 1954 Constitution recognized the rights of ethnic minorities, granting them autonomy in certain regions. The establishment of autonomous regions was intended to foster local governance while ensuring loyalty to the central government. However, while some minority groups initially benefited from these policies through cultural preservation and limited self-governance, others faced repression. The imposition of Mandarin as the national language marginalized minority languages and traditions. Events such as the suppression of uprisings in Tibet (1959) highlighted tensions between central authority and minority rights, leading to significant unrest.

Answer 56

The "Barefoot Doctors" program initiated in the late 1960s aimed to improve healthcare access in rural areas by training peasants as basic health workers. This initiative sought to address significant healthcare disparities between urban and rural populations. The program had a positive impact on women's health; it led to increased vaccination rates and improved maternal and child health outcomes. Life expectancy rose from approximately 35 years in 1949 to about 65 years by 1976 due in part to these healthcare initiatives. However, while this program expanded healthcare access for women, it also faced challenges due to resource constraints and political upheaval during periods like the Cultural Revolution.

Answer 57

Mao's educational policies aimed at increasing literacy rates across China included initiatives that specifically targeted women and ethnic minorities. Mass literacy campaigns launched in the early 1950s significantly improved literacy rates among women; however, during the Cultural Revolution, educational institutions faced severe disruption as schools closed and teachers were persecuted for being "bourgeois." Ethnic minority groups often received education in their native languages alongside Mandarin, but these programs varied widely in quality. While education for women improved overall literacy levels, political indoctrination overshadowed critical thinking skills and technical training.

Answer 58

Propaganda promoted gender equality through slogans like "Women hold up half the sky," depicting women as Iron Girls-physically strong laborers performing male-dominated tasks to symbolize revolutionary progress. However, this masked systemic inequality, as women were pushed into grueling roles while excluded from leadership, and their femininity was erased to prioritize labor over genuine empowerment. The "Iron Girls" ideal framed gender-neutral toughness as socialist virtue, co-opting feminist rhetoric to exploit women’s work. Ultimately, this upheld patriarchal structures under communist rhetoric, using women’s labor to advance state goals without addressing systemic sexism. In Mao's China, propaganda portrayed ethnic minorities as important parts of a unified Chinese nation to promote harmony and loyalty to the Communist Party, but at the same time, government policies pushed minorities to assimilate-meaning they were pressured to adopt Han Chinese culture by giving up their own languages, traditions, and customs. This created a contradiction between symbolic inclusion and forced cultural assimilation, shaping China’s ongoing approach to ethnic minorities.

Answer 59

Mao Zedong aimed to establish a totalitarian regime characterized by one-party rule, suppression of dissent, and the promotion of Communist ideology. The primary goal was to eliminate any opposition to the Communist Party and consolidate power in Mao’s hands. This involved creating an environment where opposing views could not be expressed, utilizing propaganda to promote the party's agenda, and instilling a sense of loyalty among the populace. The use of state violence and repression was also a fundamental aspect of maintaining control, as seen in campaigns against perceived enemies of the state.

Answer 60

Mao employed several methods to achieve authoritarian control, including the establishment of a single-party system with the Communist Party as the only legal political entity. The lack of democratic processes meant that citizens had no means to express dissent or challenge the government. The regime utilized propaganda extensively to shape public perception and promote Mao’s cult of personality, portraying him as an infallible leader. Additionally, Mao implemented campaigns such as the Anti-Rightist Campaign (1957) to suppress intellectual dissent and eliminate opposition within the party by labeling critics as "rightists" and subjecting them to persecution.

Answer 61

The Cultural Revolution (1966-1976) aimed to reinforce Mao's authority and purge "capitalist roaders" from within the Communist Party. During this period, Mao mobilized youth through the Red Guards, who targeted intellectuals, professionals, and anyone deemed counter-revolutionary. This campaign led to widespread chaos, violence, and social upheaval, further entrenching authoritarian control by creating an atmosphere of fear. While it succeeded in eliminating many political rivals and enforcing ideological conformity, it also destabilized party structures and caused significant cultural loss, ultimately undermining some aspects of governance.

Answer 62

Mao's regime relied heavily on state violence and repression to maintain control over the population. The People's Liberation Army (PLA) was instrumental in enforcing government policies and suppressing dissent. During campaigns against counter-revolutionaries, millions were executed or imprisoned. The use of struggle sessions publicly humiliated perceived enemies of the state, instilling fear among citizens. This reliance on force ensured that any potential opposition was swiftly dealt with, reinforcing Mao’s grip on power.

Answer 63

Propaganda was a crucial tool for consolidating Mao's authoritarian control. The regime disseminated materials that glorified Mao and promoted Communist ideology while vilifying perceived enemies. The "Little Red Book," containing Mao’s quotations, became a symbol of loyalty to his leadership. State-controlled media portrayed an idealized image of life under Communism, suppressing alternative viewpoints. Educational reforms emphasized ideological indoctrination over critical thinking, ensuring that future generations would remain loyal to Maoist principles.

Answer 64

Mao achieved a significant degree of authoritarian control during his rule from 1949 to 1976. The Communist Party maintained absolute power with no legal opposition or democratic processes in place. However, this control came at a high cost; periods like the Cultural Revolution led to internal chaos that weakened party structures and governance capabilities. While dissent was largely suppressed through violence and propaganda, the instability created by radical policies ultimately challenged the effectiveness of authoritarian rule in maintaining social order.

Answer 65

Mao Zedong emerged as a significant leader during the Chinese Civil War (1945-1949), which followed the end of World War II. His leadership of the Communist Party of China (CPC) gained momentum as the party promised land reform and social justice, particularly appealing to the peasant population.

Answer 66

Mao declared the establishment of the People's Republic of China (PRC) on October 1, 1949. This marked the culmination of the Chinese Civil War, with the CPC emerging victorious over the Nationalist Party (Kuomintang) led by Chiang Kai-shek.

Answer 67

After 1949, Mao implemented several key policies to consolidate his power. The land reform campaign initiated in 1950 aimed to redistribute land from landlords to peasants, gaining popular support. The First Five-Year Plan (1953-1957) focused on industrialization with Soviet assistance, further establishing Mao's authority.

Answer 68

The Anti-Rightist Campaign, launched in 1957, targeted intellectuals and dissenters within the Communist Party. It aimed to suppress criticism and eliminate opposition, resulting in hundreds of thousands being labeled as "rightists" and persecuted. This campaign reinforced Mao's control by instilling fear and discouraging dissent.

Answer 69

The Cultural Revolution (1966-1976) aimed to reinforce Mao's authority by purging "capitalist roaders" and promoting revolutionary fervor among youth. Mao mobilized Red Guards to attack perceived enemies within society, leading to widespread chaos and violence. While it eliminated many political rivals, it also destabilized party structures and created significant cultural loss.

Answer 70

An authoritarian state is characterized by the presence of only one political party, a lack of democracy, and limited freedom for citizens. In such a state, opposing views cannot be spread, and the government often uses force or violence to maintain control. Power is typically held by one person or a small group, and there is no need for the government to seek approval from the population. Propaganda is extensively utilized to promote the regime's ideology and suppress dissent.

Answer 71

Radicalism refers to an extreme version of an ideology that believes society needs to be changed through revolutionary means. It is often associated with left-wing politics, although individuals on both ends of the political spectrum can be described as radical. Radicalism advocates for significant societal transformations rather than incremental reforms.

Answer 72

Liberalism is a political and moral philosophy that strongly emphasizes protecting individual rights. It is based on principles such as freedom, consent of the governed, political equality, the right to private property, and equality before the law. Liberals advocate for democratic governance and social progress while protecting personal liberties.

Answer 73

Reactionary ideology seeks to restore society to its previous state before certain changes occurred. It represents a traditionalist conservative perspective that opposes social, political, and economic change. Reactionaries may advocate for extreme measures to re-establish past conditions and can be seen as radical in their opposition to progress.

Answer 74

Left-wing politics typically reject the past and believe in creating a better future through essential change. Leftists are often inspired by ideology and maintain an optimistic view of human nature, believing in the perfectibility of society through revolution. They tend to have a progressive outlook aimed at improving the human condition and may exhibit a lack of realism regarding practical challenges.

Answer 75

Right-wing politics generally respect traditional values and express skepticism about change. Rightists often have a pessimistic view of human nature, believing that people are incapable of social perfectibility. They tend to favor maintaining existing social structures and values while being suspicious of ideological movements that threaten stability.

Answer 76

Left-wing ideologies often view history as predetermined by ideological forces that necessitate change, while right-wing ideologies see history as contingent upon various events and circumstances. Leftists believe that significant change can improve society, whereas rightists may argue that stability and tradition provide lasting values.

Answer 77

The inter-war years were marked by significant economic crises due to The Great Depression. These crises accelerated political processes that led to dictatorship in several countries. Economic instability caused upheavals in Europe, contributing to the rise of authoritarian regimes as democratic procedures proved inefficient during times of crisis.

Answer 78

Before World War I, liberalism was a central belief in Europe. However, after the war, liberal dreams were shattered as liberals struggled to sustain their ideology amid evidence that state authority was more beneficial during crises. This led to anti-democratic politics emerging in countries like Germany and Italy.

Answer 79

World War II provided evidence that state authority could be more beneficial during crises. In Britain, for example, measures like Defence Regulation 18B restricted civil freedoms while granting more power to the government over citizens. This led to increased popularity for authoritarian leaders during wartime.

Answer 80

Factors included a lack of faith in democracy due to economic instability from agricultural overproduction, self-determination movements leading to independence attacks by authoritarians, protectionist measures such as tariffs, and reparations imposed on countries like Nazi Germany.

Answer 81

The current approximate population of China is 1.4 billion people.

Answer 82

The current leader of China is Xi Jinping.

Answer 83

Approximately 56 ethnic groups live in China, with Han being the largest group.

Answer 84

The official language of China is Mandarin.

Answer 85

Here are additional flashcards based on the information provided in your attachment, covering all relevant details that have not yet been included: What is the definition of authoritarianism? Authoritarianism is a political system characterized by the concentration of power in a single authority or a small group, where political pluralism is absent, and individual freedoms are restricted. It often employs state control over many aspects of life, including the economy, society, and culture.

Answer 86

Historical examples of authoritarian regimes include Nazi Germany under Adolf Hitler, the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin, and Fascist Italy under Benito Mussolini. Each of these regimes exhibited characteristics such as suppression of dissent, state control over media, and use of propaganda.

Answer 87

The proletariat refers to the working-class people viewed collectively. In Marxist theory, the proletariat is seen as the class that will rise against the bourgeoisie (the capitalist class) to establish a classless society.

Answer 88

Charismatic authority refers to a form of leadership where an individual possesses extraordinary personal qualities that inspire loyalty and devotion among followers. Charismatic leaders often emerge during times of crisis and can mobilize people through their compelling personality and vision.

Answer 89

Challenges include the existence of many different forms within each wing, varying perspectives among different leaders, lack of precise definitions for each category, extremes present in both sides, and individuals who may sit in the middle of right and left-wing politics.

Answer 90

The terms "left" and "right" originated during the French Revolution of 1789 when members of the National Assembly divided into supporters of the Ancien Régime to the president's right and supporters of the revolution to his left. Over time, left-wing parties have advocated for social equality through government intervention, while right-wing parties have emphasized limited government roles and traditional values.

Answer 91

Key factors included a lack of faith in democracy due to economic instability from agricultural overproduction, self-determination movements leading to independence attacks by authoritarians, protectionist measures such as tariffs, and reparations imposed on countries like Nazi Germany.

Answer 92

The First Five-Year Plan (1953–1957) marked Mao Zedong’s strategy to transform China into a socialist industrial power, prioritizing heavy industry over agriculture with Soviet assistance. Economically, it focused on centralized planning, directing 88% of state investment into industries like steel, coal, and machinery, achieving an annual industrial growth rate of 19% and doubling output by 1957. Politically, it entrenched state control through nationalization, eliminating private enterprises by 1956 and collectivizing agriculture into cooperatives covering 93.5% of households by 1957. Socially, rapid urbanization strained housing and food supplies as millions migrated to cities, while rural collectivization disrupted traditional farming practices. Culturally, it promoted Soviet-style industrialization through propaganda emphasizing socialist transformation and self-reliance. While successful in laying an industrial foundation and advancing socialism, the plan exacerbated agrarian stagnation and set the stage for later crises like the Great Leap Forward.

Answer 93

The Chinese Communist Party formalized the hukou household registration system in 1958, building on earlier urban registration frameworks. It classified all citizens into agricultural (rural) and non-agricultural (urban) categories, effectively creating a rigid spatial hierarchy. While resembling the USSR’s internal passport system, China’s hukou uniquely tied welfare access to registration status, with urban residents receiving state-subsidized housing, education, and rationed goods like grain via coupons (liang piao). Rural residents were excluded from these benefits, relying entirely on collectivized farming for survival. By restricting rural-to-urban migration, the hukou system trapped peasants in communes during crises like the Great Famine (1958–1962), preventing mass exodus to cities. Urban residents, protected by fixed food rations (averaging 1,500 calories/day), largely survived, while rural hukou holders—denied ration cards—faced starvation as the state confiscated grain. The system also enabled pervasive surveillance: dossiers tracked individuals’ movements, employment, and political loyalty, ensuring compliance with collectivization and Maoist policies. This dual mechanism of resource control and population immobilization eliminated dissent and centralized authority under Mao’s regime.

Answer 94

The Hundred Flowers Campaign (1956–1957) began as Mao Zedong’s attempt to encourage open criticism of the CCP, partially inspired by de-Stalinization in the USSR, with the slogan “Let a hundred flowers bloom, let a hundred schools of thought contend,” initially acknowledging grievances over land reform’s brutality and the strains of the First Five-Year Plan. However, mild critiques quickly escalated into vehement attacks on party corruption, Soviet-style policies, and even Mao’s leadership, exemplified by student protests at Beijing University, where activists revealed state violence (e.g., claims of 700,000 unjust executions) and demanded political reforms. Mao abruptly halted the campaign in July 1957, denouncing “poisonous weeds” among the “fragrant flowers,” and launched the Anti-Rightist Campaign, purging over 400,000 intellectuals, students, and officials labeled as “rightists” through public denunciations, forced labor, or execution. While the backlash initially exposed dissent, Mao exploited it to identify and eliminate critics, using surveillance and quotas to enforce orthodoxy, which instilled widespread fear and silenced opposition, ensuring compliance during subsequent crises like the Great Leap Forward and consolidating his power by demonstrating the consequences of dissent.

Answer 95

The Anti-Rightist Campaign (1957–1959) was Mao’s harsh crackdown on intellectuals, professionals, and critics who spoke out during the earlier Hundred Flowers Campaign, when Mao had encouraged open criticism but then reversed course after hearing demands for political reform and criticism of the government. Mao labeled these critics “Rightists” and forced local officials to identify roughly 10% of people in their communities as “Rightists”—even if many weren’t actually critical—creating a quota system that pressured officials to accuse innocent people to meet targets. This led to the persecution of between 550,000 and 2 million individuals. Victims faced public shaming, job loss, imprisonment, forced labor in deadly camps like Jiabiangou, or even execution. The campaign aimed to silence opposition, remove political rivals, and enforce strict ideological conformity, replacing independent courts with party control. With dissent crushed, Mao was able to push forward disastrous policies like the Great Leap Forward without challenge, while a climate of fear and surveillance ensured that China remained a one-party state. This campaign showed Mao’s willingness to use violence and repression against anyone questioning his rule, even those who initially tried to help improve China.

Answer 96

The Anti-Rightist Campaign (1957–1959) was Mao’s crackdown on critics after the Hundred Flowers Movement backfired, when people openly criticized his policies. Mao forced officials to label 10% of people in schools, workplaces, and communities as “Rightists”—often innocent intellectuals or professionals—leading to 550,000–2 million people being publicly shamed, sent to brutal labor camps, or killed. This removed political rivals (like Peng Dehuai, later purged in 1959) and silenced dissent, helping Mao push radical policies like the Great Leap Forward without opposition. The campaign devastated China’s economy by targeting skilled workers and academics, spread fear through surveillance, and forced self-censorship. It also crushed free thought, enforced strict communist ideology, and set the stage for the Cultural Revolution, ensuring Mao’s total control and turning China into a one-party state ruled by fear.

Answer 97

Mao’s Great Leap Forward (1958–1962) was a plan to quickly turn China into a superpower by organizing nearly everyone into large farming communes and backyard steel furnaces, where people worked almost nonstop to produce steel and extra crops. However, this plan failed badly because melting household items into poor-quality steel wasted resources and took farmers away from growing food. The government also forced villages to hand over grain, which caused a massive famine that killed between 15 and 55 million people. Local officials lied about harvests to avoid Mao’s anger, hiding the true scale of the disaster. Economically, farms and industries collapsed, though some projects like the Daqing oil field later helped. Politically, Mao ruled like an emperor, breaking up families, enforcing forced labor, and punishing anyone who opposed him. Propaganda glorified sacrifice and hard work, but the famine exposed the Communist Party’s failures and weakened Mao’s power—until he regained control during the Cultural Revolution. In short, Mao’s rush to industrialize caused widespread suffering but allowed him to tighten his control over China.

Answer 98

Four Pests Campaign (1958–1960): Mao’s regime mobilized China’s entire population, including children, to eradicate rats, flies, mosquitoes, and sparrows—the latter targeted through noise harassment and nest destruction—aiming to boost agricultural output by eliminating perceived threats to crops. However, the extermination of sparrows, which preyed on crop-devouring insects like locusts, caused ecological collapse, exacerbating the Great Famine (1959–1961) as locust swarms ravaged harvests. Inspired by Lysenkoist pseudoscience (Soviet-derived agricultural theories), the campaign prioritized ideological conformity over ecological balance, leading to catastrophic food shortages. Politically, Mao consolidated power by framing participation as patriotic duty, punishing resisters with laogai labor camps, while propaganda glorified mass mobilization under the slogan “man must conquer nature,” reinforcing his authority through enforced compliance and suppression of dissent. The campaign’s failure, marked by tens of millions of famine deaths, underscored the regime’s prioritization of ideological control over scientific pragmatism.

Answer 99

Mao’s Great Leap Forward (1958–1962) aimed to prove China’s socialist strength by forcing farmers into communes, producing steel in backyard furnaces, and exporting grain to show off an “economic miracle,” even sending food to the USSR. However, these policies caused a massive famine that killed 20 to 45 million people, with survivors forced to eat tree bark, dogs, and sometimes resort to cannibalism or selling children to survive. Mao avoided taking responsibility by blaming peasants for hiding food, scapegoating local officials for false harvest reports, and blaming natural disasters, even though his policies were the main cause. The government briefly allowed private farming to ease starvation, but Mao stayed out of public view after 1962 to dodge blame while maintaining power. Politically, he used the famine to purge critics like Peng Dehuai and enforce strict control through fear. Economically, the disaster exposed how Mao’s focus on ideology over practical needs led to widespread suffering and repression, yet he preserved his authority until the Cultural Revolution.

Answer 100

Mao’s laogai system aimed to eliminate perceived threats to socialism—counter-revolutionaries, intellectuals, and “class enemies”—through mass imprisonment and forced labor, targeting not only dissenters but also marginalized groups like beggars, prostitutes, and the unemployed. Local officials, incentivized by quotas and ideological zeal, transformed China into a nation of informers, bypassing judicial oversight to detain individuals arbitrarily. Economically, prisoners provided cheap labor for infrastructure projects and industrial output, sustaining Mao’s industrialization drives. Politically, the camps instilled terror, purging rivals and silencing dissent, while socially, they dismantled families and normalized state violence. Culturally, the system enforced ideological conformity through “thought reform”—combining grueling labor with indoctrination sessions on Maoist doctrine. By eliminating due process and empowering local cadres to act as judge and jailer, Mao centralized authority, ensuring loyalty through fear and entrenching the CCP’s totalitarian control over all aspects of life. The camps’ legacy includes an estimated 25 million deaths under Mao and a blueprint for modern repression tactics.

Answer 101

Through deliberate myth-making—pre-selected crowds at staged public appearances, propaganda paintings like Chairman Mao Walks All Over China, and symbolic acts such as swimming the Yangtze—Mao crafted an image of invincible leadership, enforced by ubiquitous portraits, Little Red Book indoctrination, and daily media quotes. This cult fostered blind loyalty, mobilizing mass support for radical initiatives like the Great Leap Forward and Cultural Revolution, while suppressing dissent through terror tactics (e.g., purges, labor camps). By positioning himself as China’s sole visionary, Mao centralized authority, bypassed party rivals, and normalized his infallibility, ensuring unchallenged control even during catastrophic policies like the Great Famine, with his cult enduring as a tool of ideological conformity and power maintenance until his death.

Answer 102

The White Terror (1927–1930s) was Chiang Kai-shek’s campaign to purge communists and leftists following the Shanghai Massacre, targeting CCP members in urban centers like Shanghai, Wuhan, and Hunan, where Kuomintang forces and gangsters executed thousands, dismantled unions, and suppressed dissent. This purge triggered the Chinese Civil War, forcing Mao Zedong and surviving communists to retreat to rural bases like the Jinggang Mountains, where Mao established the first Chinese Soviet in 1927, pivoting to a peasant-based revolutionary strategy after urban uprisings (e.g., Autumn Harvest Uprising) failed. The White Terror (1927–1930s)—Chiang Kai-shek’s brutal purge of communists that killed over a million—forced Mao and the CCP to flee cities, retreating to rural bases like the Jinggang Mountains, where Mao pivoted to a peasant-led revolution, redistributing land from landlords to win mass support. This rural focus allowed the CCP to build guerrilla armies, establish loyal soviet governments (local communist councils inspired by the Soviet Union’s governance model, though not official allies), and survive the Long March (1934–1935), which cemented Mao’s leadership and the CCP’s image as resilient underdogs. Early CCP governance mirrored Soviet methods—centralized party control, Marxist-Leninist ideology, and purges of dissenters—but Mao adapted these to China’s rural reality, prioritizing peasants over industrial workers. By focusing on land reform and peasant mobilization instead of urban uprisings, Mao turned rural China into a revolutionary base, outlasting the KMT’s corrupt, landlord-backed regime. The CCP’s grassroots army, fueled by peasant loyalty, ultimately defeated the KMT in 1949, proving Mao’s strategy of “surrounding cities from the countryside” as the key to communist victory.

Answer 103

The Futian Incident (1930) happened because Mao Zedong wanted to eliminate rival Communist leaders in Jiangxi (not Nationalists) so he could take full control of the Communist Party. He accused these rivals of secretly belonging to the Anti-Bolshevik League—a supposed Kuomintang spy group posing as Communists—though this threat was largely fabricated. Mao used this claim to justify arresting and purging thousands of his own Red Army troops (the Communists’ military, not the Nationalists) who disagreed with his policies or challenged his authority. When some soldiers mutinied in response to the arrests, Mao violently crushed the rebellion through torture and executions, aiming to scare others into loyalty and secure his leadership. Most of those targeted were loyal Communists with different political views, not actual enemies, but Mao framed them as traitors to remove opposition within the Party. This brutal purge set a pattern of using terror to stay in power and helped Mao gain the support of key generals like Zhu De.

Answer 104

The Jiangxi Soviet (1931–1934) was a Communist-controlled area in Jiangxi province that acted as an independent "workers' government" because it was controlled entirely by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and operated separately from the Nationalist (KMT) government, which had no authority over this region. This meant the CCP established its own laws, land reforms, and military in Jiangxi, creating a self-governed communist enclave that openly rejected KMT rule. Mao Zedong used this base to test his peasant-led revolution ideas by taking land from wealthy landlords and giving it to poor farmers, which gained peasant support but also caused problems like crop shortages and unrest. The Red Army fought the KMT using guerrilla warfare and followed strict rules like banning looting and enforcing equal pay to maintain local support. Mao also violently removed rivals through purges such as the Futian Incident, using fear and executions that led to population decline. Although the KMT eventually defeated the Jiangxi Soviet, forcing the Long March retreat in 1934, this period proved Mao’s strategy that peasants, not city workers, could lead the revolution. It also weakened his Moscow-backed opponents, strengthened the Red Army’s loyalty to him, and laid the foundation for Mao’s rise to power within the Communist Party.

Answer 105

The Yan’an Period (1935–1947) began after the Long March, when the CCP set up their base in remote mountain caves and villages in Shaanxi. Here, Mao tested his version of communism by giving land taken from wealthy landlords to peasants and using guerrilla warfare tactics. During this time, Mao developed his ideology (Maoism), focusing on self-reliance, rallying the masses, and purging rivals—like the 1942–1945 Yan’an Rectification Movement, which forced party members to adopt Mao’s ideas and removed those loyal to Soviet-style communism. While the USSR gave some aid, Mao tailored Marxism to China’s rural needs, gaining peasant support and training the Red Army. Through propaganda (e.g., Serve the People) and strict loyalty campaigns, Mao positioned himself as China’s revolutionary leader, growing the CCP from a small group to 1.2 million members by 1945. This laid the foundation for the CCP’s 1949 victory.