Managerial Economics Flashcards
What is the fundamental concept behind economics?
- social science
- allocate scarce resources in the most efficient way possible to satisfy as many of societies wants as possible
Scarcity:
- all resources (natural, human, capital goods) are limited in comparison to society’s infinite wants
- decision making is therefore important
What are opportunity costs?
- Related to a decision
- benefits to the society of what is sacrificed or given up when a choice is made
What is the difference between Micro and Macroeconomics?
Why are they important?
Microeconomics:
- branch of economics that studies the behaviour of individual economic units
- focus on firm, consumers, specific markets
Important for managers: pricing, output, strategies and the potential of impacting cost, demand, revenue and profit
Macroeconomics:
- study of the economy as a whole
- focus on aggregate (total) expenditure and aggregate (total) consumption
- international trade, government spending, taxation and money supply
Important for managers: estimate current market situation, understand politic environment, predict economic cycles
What are normative economics?
Normative = opinion about what the government “ought to” or “should do” or how the economy “should be”
What are positive economics?
Positive = facts and statements that can be tested in practice
What the difference between deductive and inductive methods?
What are the purposes of them?
Deductive
- hypotheses are made, tested and then rejected or approved based on quantitive analysis of data
Inductive:
- economics create theories based on facts which have been determined after the analysis of data
–> Economists use both methods to find support for their economic theories, build theories or create new theories
What is ceteris paribus?
What does it mean?
Economists build models on the relationship between a few variables and assume other variables that influence the study are unchanged
Ceteris paribus = other things being equal assumption
Describe the idea of economic optimisation.
Idea of optimisation:
- economic agent (household, government, firm) aims to maximize their utility, profits and social welfare respectively
- subject to certain constraints
- act rationally based on the marginal cost and marginal benefit of a good
What is the assumption of the rational expectation school of thought?
Economic agents are able to understand the future effects of government policy decisions to the point that such policies may become ineffective
What is the criticism regarding the scientific methodological approach used by many economists?
- Often difficult to realistically build models of the economy and the behaviour of its economic agents using structural equations and optimisation theory
- many models are based on assumptions that are unrealistic
- many models do not represent the real world
- critic: if policy prescriptions are based on these models it could lead to inaccurate and potentially hazardous courses of action regarding the economic well being
List different economic schools of thought.
- Classical
- New Classical
- Neo Classical
- Austrian
- Keynesian
- New Keynesian
- Post Keynesian
- institutional
- evolutionary
- radical
- Marxist
- feminist
- behavioural
What are categories of economic schools of thought?
How are the different from each other?
What is the criticised?
Mainstream:
- classical, new classical, Neo classical, austrian
- limited government intervention in the economy
- promote the idea that markets by themselves can correct any imbalances
- government intervention create inefficiencies
Heterodox:
- Keynesian, etc.
- markets are inefficient and they do bot correct themselves
- governments need to intervene to correct market failures arising from imperfect competition and imperfect information
What are implications for managers regarding the different economic schools of thought? Which analytical tools should they rely on?
- Understand underlying economic framework which an analytical tool is based
- Are the assumptions realistic?
- Are the assumptions relevant?
- Are they relevant to the Marco environment of the firm?
2
- understand the limitations of the data at the disposal
3
- be aware to only rely on quantitative data when making decisions
- focus on instincts as well
- Challenge: mix gut feeling with quantitive data
What is the critic of the main schools of thought in economics?
Critic with Mainstream:
- creating economic models are too simplistic and unrealistic
- models cannot describe how the economy works
- models are very useless at best and potentially dangerous if governments follow the prescriptions at worst
Critic with Heterodox:
- thinking lacks credibility because of its non-scientific methodology approach
- does not use mathematical equilibrium optimisation models
- qualitative research alone cannot explain the behaviour of firms, governments and individuals on a basis for valid recommendations
What is a business cycle?
Which phases are there?
- regular fluctuations in the economic activity
- represent macroeconomic instability
- economic prosperity tends to be followed by economic downturns
- Recession
- aggregate expenditure falls and unemployment rises
- GDP in two consecutive quarters are decreasing - Trough
- economic activity at the lowest point - Growth
- economic activity rises / recovers - Peak
- highest point right before it begins to fall
How can mangers deal with the business cycle?
1: Understand the terminology used to describe the macro conditions
2: Look for signs suggesting economic changes
3: economic indications that governments, central banks, and firms follow to gauge upcoming changes
4: Challenge of interpreting them correctly
What are economic indicators?
List them.
Economic indicators reflect the health of an economy
1 Labor market conditions
- initial claims for unemployment benefits
- employment rate and unemployment rate
- labor force participation rate
- long-term unemployment rate
2 Government finances
- budget deficit / surplus
- government debt
3 Surveys
- Surveys of Consumer Expectations (SCE)
- ECB Surverys
- Business Leader surveys
4 Inflation
- HICP (Harmonized index of consumer prices)
- CPI (Consumer Price Index)
- PPI (Producer Price Index)
5 National Income and trade
- GDP
- personal income
- BOP (Balance of Payments - Import/Export)
- exchange rates
6 Key expenditures
- construction spending
- motor vehicle sales
7 Manufacturing and inventories
- industrial production and capacity utilisation
- manufacturers shipments, inventories and orders
- wholesale and retail inventories
What policies should governments use to create conditions of macroeconomic stability?
1 Sustainable economic growth 2 Price stability (low inflation) 3 Full employment (low unemployment) 4 Balance of Payment equilibrium 6 Sustainable national debt (including low budget deficit) 7 More equitable distribution of income
What is monetary policy?
Focus on:
- supply of money
- interest rates
- availability of credit
Done by the central banks (FED, ECB, etc.)
Tool = OMO (Open Market Operations):
- buying and selling of securities –> changes in money supply
- changing the discount rate –> change interest rates of credit
- changing the reserve ration –> affect availability of credit
Describe OMO.
Who uses it?
What’s the underlying policy?
Tool = OMO (Open Market Operations):
- buying and selling of securities –> changes in money supply
- changing the discount rate –> change interest rates of credit
- changing the reserve ration –> affect availability of credit
Used by central banks such as ECB, FED, etc.
Part of monetary policy to affect money supply, interest rates and availability of credit.
What is tight/contractionary monetary policy?
Executed as part of the OMO of the central banks:
Aims to decrease inflationary pressures by:
- decreasing money supply growth
- increasing interest rates
- Decreasing money supply by selling securities to commercial banks or the general public
- Increasing interest rates = more expensive to borrow money
What is loose/expansionary monetary policy?
Executed as part of the OMO of the central banks:
Aims to increase or accommodate aggregate spending:
- increasing money supply
- decreasing interest rates
- Increasing money supply by buying securities from commercial banks or the general public
- Decrease interest rates = cheaper to borrow money
- Adopt non-traditional methods such as QE (quantitative easing) to stimulate bank lending and spending
Describe the term fiscal policy.
- Fiscal policy is the government’s policy with respect to the government spending and taxation
Government can
- increase spending and/or
- decrease taxes
Expansionary fiscal policy:
- Decreasing income and/or corporate taxes:
- leaves households with more money
- more profits for companies to reinvest
- focus on aggregate expenditure
- used to pull economy out of a recession
- mainstream economists: increase aggregate expenditure = short-term effect only since long-term results in higher inflation
- results in higher budget deficits = government borrowing + cloud out (reduce) private sector and business spending (reducing the effectiveness)
- Heterodox economists:
- strong disagree with the view of mainstream regarding expansionary fiscal policy
- will result in higher tax revenue + lower government spending on unemployment benefits
- help to minimise budget deficit
- interest rates do not have an effect on crowding out
Describe the supply-side policies.
Name six examples.
- Fiscal and monetary policies focus on the demand-side to influence aggregate spending
- Alternative approach to increase the supply-side
- Aims to increase aggregate supply by increasing efficiency in the product and resource market
Examples:
1 lowering the size and duration of unemployment benefits to motivate the unemployed to search for work
2 reducing minimum wages to create greater incentive for employers to hire workers
3 reducing marginal income tax to create incentive for works to work more hours
4 reduce trade union power
5 making information about jobs more accessible to unemployed
6 increase competition in the product markets