Management of Labour and Delivery Flashcards
what is normal labour?
A physiological process during which the products of conception are expelled outside of the uterus
Skull is proportionally very large and humans have adopted an upright stature which makes it difficult for humans
Human babies are born relatively premature compared to other species
maternal mortality
830 women die in childbirth every day
In 2015-303,000 worldwide
Most of these deaths are preventable-sepsis/haemorrhage etc
stillbirths
1.2 million a year
Risk is 50 times greater for an African woman that for a woman in the UK
55% of all stillbirths are for rural families in Africa, South Asia
hormones for retaining a pregnancy
Progesterone Cervix Hypervolaemia Adrenaline Relaxin CRH
describe the role of progesterone in maintaining pregnancy
Produced by corpus luteum initially and then placenta
Dampens down excitability of smooth muscle in uterus and strengthens sphincter at internal os
describe the role of the cervix in maintaining pregnancy
Long tubular structure made of strong connective tissue
In labour it softens and thins down and dilates
describe the role of hypervolaemia in maintaining pregnancy?
Inhibits hormones of posterior lobe of pituitary (oxytocin and vasopressin)
Dampen down contractility of uterus
describe the role of adrenaline in maintaining pregnancy
Act same way as progesterone
Inhibits oxytocin secretion
describe the role of relaxin in maintaining pregnancy
Relaxin is a hormone that regulates activation adenalol cyclase involved in energy uptake by fibres
Prevents uterine contraction
describe the role of CRH in maintaining pregnancy
Derived from placenta and secreted into maternal circulation in third trimester
Inhibits prostaglandin production
Increases contractility of myometrium (at term)
what is involved in the release of pregnancy
Oestrogen Oxytocin Vasopressin Cortisol Prostaglandins Uterine distension CRH
describe the role of oestrogen in release of pregnancy
Sensitises uterine muscle to oxytocin
describe the role of oxytocin in release of pregnancy
Released from pituitary along with vasopressin
Specific oxytocin receptors in myometrium that are activated
describe the role of cortisol in release of pregnancy
Decrease progesterone secretion
describe the role of prostaglandins in release of pregnancy
Increase myometrium contractility
Smooth muscle relaxants on cervical sphincter
describe how distension of the uterus results in release of pregnancy
Causes increase in contractility of muscle
what are the aspects involved in the mechanism of labour
Passage
Power
Passenger
what are the 4 types of pelvis
Gynecoid
Android
Anthropoid
Platypelloid
gynecoid pelvis
- Most common and favourable for delivery
- Oval at outlet
- Transverse diameter greater than AP
- Shallow
- Wide suprapubic arch
- Short ischius spines
android pelvis
- Usually in males
- Triangular inlet
- Narrow suprapubic arch
- Prominent iscius spine
- Blocks areas for rotation and extension
- 20% of women
- More common in afrocaribean women
anthropoid pelvis
- Oval with AP diameter wider than transverse
* More likely to get babies in OP position (looking up) this slows down labour
platypelloid pelvis
- Least common
- Wide suprapubic arch
- Wide sacrum
vaginal impediment of labour
- If it has scarring
* Fatty tissue around
what is the role of the pelvic floor in labour
• Flexion and rotation of head
bladder impediment of labour
- Sits in front of uterus so if it is full it can block the descent of the head
- Lies behind the uterus so if full can block descent of head through pelvis
describe the inlet
- Transverse diameter-13cm
- AP diameter-12cm
- Head usually engages in a transverse position and rotate as it comes through the pelvis and come out in AP position
describe the outlet
- Transverse diameter-11cm
* AP diameter-12.5cm
describe the head position through pelvis
- Transverse/oblique at inlet
* AP position at outlet
what muscles make up the pelvic floor
- Coccygeus
- Levator ani muscles
underneath pelvic floor
• Urogenital diaphragm containing deep transverse perineal muscle supporting the pelvic floor
• Superficially-bulbocavernosus muscle surrounding vagina and anus
what causes the power labour?
- Contractions of the uterus
* Anterior abdominal wall muscle (initially)
physiological functions of uterus?
- Tone
- Contractility
- Fundal dominance
- Rhythmicity
describe contractility of uterus?
- Coordinate contractility-all muscles contract in the same direction
- Incoordinate-different direction of muscle contraction (may be why labour doesn’t progress)-synthetic version of oxytocin is used
describe fundal dominance of the uterus?
- Contractions start at the fundus and travel downwards
* Contractions are also longer at the fundus
describe rhythmicity of the uterus?
• Rhythmicity of uterus depends of gestation and stage of labour
describe contractions in first stage of labour
3 times in 10 minutes and get stronger
describe contractions in advanced stage of labour
4 in 10 minutes and getting even stronger
describe contractions in second stage of labour
- 4-5 in 10 minutes
* Much stronger
describe contractions in 3rd stage of labour?
- After baby delivered
- Space out
- Important to contract uterus down and reduce blood loss
describe the sutures in the fetal skull
- Lamboid
- Sagittal
- Coronal
- Frontal
what is the most favourable diameter for fetal head during birth?
- Suboccipito-bregmatic
- As it is 9.5cm in diameter
- Baby is in flexed position (head tucked in)
what is the largest diameter fetal head position
Mento-vertical
describe presentation of baby
- In a transverse position because diameter is greater for a transverse position at the inlet
- Feeling for the fontanel
- Anterior fontanel (diamond shaped and big enough to fit a fingertip in)
what does occipitut anterior mean
- Baby head faces downwards
* Anterior fontanel at the bottom
what does occiput posterior mean
- Back to back
- Occiput is posterior
- Anterior fontanel at the front
what are the cardinal movements of labour
- Engagement
- Descent
- Flexion
- Internal rotation
- Extension
- External rotation
- Expulsion
describe level of engagement of the fetus
- Examining by feeling for head
- By 5ths that are palpable
- As labour progresses less of the baby head should be felt abdominally and more felt vaginally
describe descent
Occurs from pressure from amniotic fluid and contractions and extension and flexion of fetus
describe flexion
- When head hits the pelvic floor
* Changes to the Suboccipito-bregmatic diameter
describe internal rotation
- Head delivered under pubic arch and extend outwards
* Reverts back to OT position
what are the stages of labour
- Latent phase
- First stage
- Second stage
- Third stage
what is the latent phase of labour
- Onset of contractions until they become regular
- 3-4cms dilation
- Cervix fully effaced
- Uterus muscle tone increases
- Cervix changes to a thin membrane
what is the first stage of labour
- Regular contractions
* 3-4cm dilated until fully dilated
what is the second stage of labour
- Passive-no pushing
* Active-maternal pushing
what is the third stage of labour
- Delivery of placenta and membranes
- Placenta separates from endometrial wall so uterus contracts down to reduce blood loss
- 100-200ml blood loss
how long is spent in each stage of labour for a primiparous woman
- First stage-8.25 (2-12)
- Second stage-1 (0.25-1.5)
- Third stage-0.25 (0-1)
- Total-9.5 (2.25-14)
how long is spent in each stage of labour for a multiparous woman
- First stage-5.5 (1-9)
- Second stage-0.25 (0-0.75)
- Third stage-0.25 (0-0.5)
- Total-6 (1-10.25)
cervical effacement and dilation
pressure from the baby’s head on cervix which causes prostaglandin release leading to softening
describe the changes in fetal head position in labour
- Descent and flexion
- LOT to LOA
- LOA to OA
- Extension
- OA to LOA
- LOA to LOT
what are the issues if the shoulder doesn’t deliver
- Baby could become hypoxic
- As soon as the head is exposed to air the baby tries to breathe so placenta slows down function and also umbilical cord is squashed at this stage
what is post partum haemorhage
Blood loss greater than 500ml
what is expected blood loss from a caesarean section
500ml-1L
describe the normal management of labour
- Evaluation of maternal and fetal condition, risk assessment to determine if fetal monitoring is required
- Evaluation of the birth plan
- Partogram
- One to one support
- Regular bladder emptying
- Analgesia
- Vaginal examination every 4 hours
why is vaginal examination important during labour
- Ensure no CPD
* Ensure labour is progressing (complications-fetal stress, sepsis, future long term complications for mother)
what is CPD
- Cephalopelvic disproportion
- Baby head too big for pelvis
- If no intervention head can become impacted and the uterus could rupture leading to maternal and fetal death
what maternal observations are monitored
- Check for tachycardia or pyrexia signs of sepsis
- Woman should be encouraged to push once the cervix is fully dilated, in a position they feel comfortable
- Episiotomy is indicated
- Hands on versus hands off delivery
- Controlled delivery of the head
- Offer active management of the third stage
- Blood pressure-pre-eclampsia
describe active management of third stage of labour
- Injection of syntometrine which helps the womb contract so all the blood vessels are sealed
- Placenta separates more quickly
- Pull on umbilical cord whilst applying counter pressure to uterus so uterus doesn’t come out
describe the use of oxytocin in labour
- Increase contraction frequency, strength and contractility
* Doesn’t improve outcomes
describe the use of analgesia in labour
- Simple oral analgesics
- TENS
- Entenox (gas oxygen and nitrous oxide)
- Systemic opiates-pethidine, meptid, morphine, diamorphine
- Epidural
describe foetal monitoring in labour
- Intermittent auscultation
* Continuous monitoring-CTG (cardiotopograph)
what is CTG
- Duration and frequency of contractions (not the strength due to interference from abdominal wall muscle)
- Fetus cardiac activity (variable)
what is the role of the obstetrician
- Failure to progress first stage
- Failure to progress second stage
- Fetal compromise-sepsis/hypoxia
- Maternal compromise-sepsis, haemorrhage
- Delayed third stage
why do people choose home birth
- Can be safe for women who are low risk
- Emotionally satisfying for mother and family
- If risk factors – hospital delivery safer
- Familiar setting to feel relaxed and in control
- Fear of hospital
- Continuing relationship with known midwife
- More family members for support
- Previous home birth
- Avoid intervention
name some statistics regarding home births
- Home births 80% in 1920 to 1% in 1990
- Government committee recommendation and maternity matters – full choice incluin home birth should be offered
- UK home birth rate now increasing and currently 2-3%
- 10-14% of women would choose home birth if given the option
In women booked for home birth
• 29% change to hospital (more common in nulliparous)
• Most transfers due to failure to progress or pain relief
• Slight perinatal mortality with home births
what risk factors would make hospital delivery advisable over home birth
hypertension, diabetes, placenta previa
what should be discussed with women opting for home birth
- If low risk and mother wants home birth she should be counselled about the slight increasein perinatal mortality and possibility of transfer in labour
- If risk arises before birth, booking should be changed
- If risk is minimal – ofer choice and respect decision
what are the risks of home birth
- Rare
- Transfer to hosptail may be needed
- If delay in transfere, response to acute complications such as intrapartum fetal hypoxia, post partum haemorrhage may have worse outcomes
- Facilities for neonatal resuscitation limited
- Inadequate lightin and analgesia make diagnosing exten of perineal tears difficult and need transfer to hospital
what is the role of GP in home birth
- Should eb fully informed about local options for delivery and provide options in clear, understandable way
- If there are litigation issues during birth – judge by bolam test
- Support woman and midwife, help identify deviations from normal labour
- Very few GPs offer care in labour and delivery
- Do not have to attend home birth unless asked by midwife
what are the risk factors for pre-term labour
Previous preterm birth or late miscarriage
Multiple pregnancy
Cervical surgery
Uterine anomalies
Medical conditions eg renal disease
Pre-eclampsia and IUGR (spontaneous and iatrogenic
PRE-TERM LABOUR
management
tocolysis maternal corticosteroids magnesium sulfate for neuroprotection intrapartum antibiotics fetal monitoring mode of birth timing of cord clamping
PRE TERM LABOUR
tocolysis
delay delivery
• Nifedipine – 24-23+6 weeks with intact membranes
• If nifedipine contraindicated offer ocytocin receptor antagonists
PRE-TERM LABOUR
when should maternal corticosteroids be given
23-33+6 weeks
PRE-TERM LABOUR
magnesium sulfate for neuroprotection
- 23-23+6 weeks
- Offer IV 24-29+6 weeks / consider 30-33+6 weeks who are In established preterm or have preterm delivery planned within 24hrs
- Give 4g bolus over 15 mins followed by 1g IV per hour until birth or 24hrs
PRE TERM LABOUR
fetal monitoring
- Cardiotocography and intermittent auscultation
- Fetal scalp electrode
- Fetal blood samping
PRE-TERM LABOUR
time of cord clamping
- May need resuscitation or If significant maternal bleed
* Wait 30secs – upto 3 mins before clamping if both stable
FETAL MONITORING
intermittent auscultation
- Low risk of consultations
- Pinard or doppler
- Immediately after contraction for 1 min at least every 15 mins
- Record accelerations and decelerations
- Palpate maternal pulse hourly
- If rising baseline fetal HR – ausculate more frequently
FETAL MONITORING
continuous cardiotocography and telemetry
•Not for low risk
Use if • Maternal pulse >120 • Temp 38 • Suspected chorioamnionitis or sepsis • Pain different from normal pain of contractions • Significant meonium • Fresh vaginal bleeding • Severe hypertension • Proteinuria • Delay in first or second stage of labour • Contractions longer than 60seconds • Oxytocin use
FETAL MONITORING
what should you review on CTG
- Baseline rate
- Baseline variability
- Presence or absence of decelerations
- Presence of accelerations
FETAL MONITORING
baseline fetal heart rate
- Reassuring – 110-160
- Non reassuring – 100-109 / 161 – 180
- Abnormal <100 / >180
FETAL MONITORING
baseline variability
- Reassuring 5-25 beats/mins
- Non reassuring - <5 beats/min for 30-50mins or >25 beats/min for 15-25 mins
- Abnormal - <5 beats/min for more than 50 mins / >25 beats/min for more than 25 mins / sinusoidal
FETAL MONITORING
what should you specify when describing decelerations
- Timing in relation to peaks of contractions
- Duration of decelerations
- Wether or not fetal HR reterns to baseline
- How long they’ve been present
- Wheterr they occur with over 50% of contractions
- Presence or absence of biphasic W shape
- Presence of shouldering
- Presence or absence of reduced variability within deceleration
FETAL MONITORING reassuring characteristics of decelerations
no decelerations, early deceleraions, variable with no concerning characeristics <90mins
FETAL MONITORING
non reasuring characteristics of decelerations
- Variable decelerations with no concerning characteristics for >90 mins
- Variable decelraion with concerning characteristics in 50% of contractions for 30 mins
- Variable decelrations with concnerning characteristics >50% contractions less than 30 mins
- Late decelerations in over 50% contractions for less than 30 mins
FETAL MONITORING
abnormal decelerations
- Variable decelerations with concerning characteristics in over 50% of contractions for 30 mins
- Late decelerations for 30 mins
- Acute bradycardia or single prolonged deceleration lasting 3 mins or more
FETAL MONITORING
concerning characteristics of variable decelerations
- More than 60 secs
- Reduced baseline variability
- Failure to return to baseline
- Biphasic shape
- No shouldering
FETAL MONITORING
accelerations
the presence of fetal heart rate accelerations, even with reduced baseline variability, is generally a sign that the baby is healthy
FETAL MONITORING
when is fetal scalp stimulation indicated
If cardiotocograph is pathological
describe the first stage of labour
Dilatation
From onset of labour until cervix fully dilated
2 phases
• Latent phase – effacement of cervix to 3cm dilation
• Active phase – active cervical dilatation – from 3cm to full dilation
describe the second stage of labour
From full cervical dilatation to birth
describe the third stage of labour
From birth of baby to delivery of placenta
describe the pelvic organs during labour
Cervix becomes effaced and dilates fully
The uterus and vagina become one elongated tube
Pelvic floor muscles stretched backwards
Bladder becomes an abdominal organ and urethra lengthenes
Bowel compressed
describe uterine action in labour
- Fetus propelled down birth canal by myometrium
- Fundally dominant so waves of contraction pass down
- Contractions increase in frequency and strength
- Painful due to; hypoxia, compression of nerve endings, cervica stretch and dilatation
describe the uterus in first stage of labour
- Contract and retract – remain shorter
- Heaping up and thickening of upper uterine segment and lower becomes thinner and stretched
- Cervix pulled up and canal is effaces so length diminishes
- Cervix pulled up and open
- Often start with Braxton hicks (painless)
describe the uterus in the second stage of labour
- Diminution in transverse diameters
- Fetal head is forced into upper vagina
- Expulsive efforts made by abdominal wall muscles, fixed diaphragm
- Voluntary efforts not essential. Pushing instinctive
describe the uterus in the third stage of labour
- Uterine muscle contract – constrict blood vessles preventing bleeding
- Placenta seperates at delivery of fetus.
monitoring the first stage of labour
- Monitored by descent of fetal head and dilatation of cervix
- Partogram used to assess progress and contains; high risk factors, fetal heart rate, cervicogramo, descent of fetal head, contractions, amniotic fluid colour, maternal urine output, drugs given, BP, pulse, temp
describe the management of second stage of labour
- Woman encouraged to push with contractions
- Monitor progress by vaginal examination
- Inhalation analgesia
- Episiotomy if – fetal distress, operative vaginal delivery, rigid perineum, if experienced midwife believes there is going to be major tear
- Episiotomy – lignocaine 1%
- When head delivered it is allowed to rotate and then lateral traction is applied in direction of mothers anus allowing birth of fetal anterior shoulder
- 0.5mg syntometrine IM
- Babys head raised towards mothers abdomen so posterior shoulder passes over perineum and rest of baby slips out
- Suck mouth and nasal passages free of mucus and clear mouth
- Umbilical cord clamped twice
- Baby starts breathing within 1 min of delivery
describe management of third stage of labour
- Apply controlled cord traction
- Place left hand above symphysis pubis and guards front wall of uterus to prevent uterine inversion
- Traction on umbilical cord until placenta delivered into vagina and kidney dish
- Membranes usually follow placenta and removed by rotation of placenta
- Check placenta and membrane
- Estimate blood loss
- Active management if – haemorrhage, failure to deliver placenta within 1 hour, maternal desire to shorten 3rd stage
describe the active management of third stage of labour
- Syntometrine IM or oxytocin 10IUM given as anterior shoulder is born
- Dish placed at introitus to collect placenta and blood loss
- As the uterus contracts to 20-wk size, the placenta separates from the uterus through the spongy layer of the decidua basalis.
- The uterus will then feel firmer, the cord will lengthen, and there is often a trickle of fresh blood (separation bleeding).
- Controlled cord traction (CCT) is applied with the right hand, whilst supporting the fundus with the left hand (Brandt–Andrew’s technique).
pain relief in labour
Nitrous oxide
Pethidine – can cause neonatal depression and poor analgesia
Water – water birth / first and second stage
Relaxation – training in pregnancy
Hypnosis – expensive
Acupuncture
TENS
Spinal block – nupivercaine
Epidural – bupivacaine 1% or marcain 0.25-0.5% - 2-3 hours
Caudal block
Local – pudendal
describe potential abnormal labour
- Dysfunctional uterine activity – prolonged labour more common in primigravidae
- Prolonged latent phase. – rare usually primigravidae
- Secondary arrest of cervical dilatation – enters active phase, reaches 5-7cm dilatation then cervix stops dilating, contractions may stop
- Primary dysfunctional labour – slow progress after onset of established labour can lead to fetal distress, prolonged labour, incoordinate uterine activity, maternal dehydration
- Shoulder dystocia – emergency, shoulders don’t spontaneously deliver after the head
- Cephaopelvic disproportion – absolute (no possibility of normal vaginal delivery) or relative (baby is large but baby would pass through pelvis if mechanisms of labour function correctly
- Breech presentation
- Shoulder presentation (transverse lie)
- Occipitoposterior positions
- Face presentation
- Brow presentation
describe the management of multiple pregnancy
- All defined as high risk and care should be consultant led.
- Establish chorionicity – diagnose in 1st trimester
- Routine iron and folate
- Detailed anomaly scan
- Aspirin 75mcg of if other risk factors for preeclampsia
- Growth scans at 28, 32, 36 weeks for DC twins
- More frequent antenatal checks due to increase risk of pre-eclampsia
- Offer delivery at 37-38 weeks
describe the risk of preterm delivery in multiple pregnancy
- Increased incidence
- Predictabl with transvaginal cervical scanning
- Not preventable by cervical cerclage
- Beneficial effect of progesterione limited
what are the maternal risks in multiple pregnancy
- Pregnancy risks heightened
- Hyperemesis gravidarum
- Anaemia
- Pre-eclampsia (x5)
- Gestational diabetes
- Polyhydramnios
- Placenta praevia
- Antepartum and post partum haemorrhage
- Operative delivery
what are the fetal risks in multiple pregnancy
- All risks increased
- Increased risk of miscarriage (especially with MC twins)
- Congenital abnormalities (especially with MC twins) – neural tube defects, cardiac abnormalities, gastrointestinal atresia
- IUGR
- Preterm labour – 40% before 37 / 10% before 32 weeks
- Increase perinatal mortality
- Increase risk of intrauterine death
- Increase risk of disability
- Increase incidence of cerebral palsy
- Vanishing twin syndrome
describe twin to twin transfusion syndrome
- 80% mortality if untreated
- Can lead to severe fetal compromise at gestation too early for delivery
- Caused by aberrant vascular anastomoses in placenta which redistribute the fetal blood (blood from donor twin transfused to recipient twin)
- MC twins need intensive monitoring – serial USS every 2 weeks from 16-24 weeks and every 3 weeks until delivery. Treatment with - laser ablation of placental anastomoses or selective feticide by cord occlusion
- Laser treatment leads to survival of one in 80% and both in 50%
- Effect on donor twin: hypovolaemia and anaemia, oligohydramnios, growth restriction
- Effect on recipient twin: hypovolaemia and polycythaemic, large bladder and polyhydranios, cardiac overload and failure, evidence of fetal hydrops, often more at risk than donor
describe selective intrauterine growth restriction
- Growth discordance even without TTTS Is more common
- Variable pattern f umbilial artery doppler signals indicates risk of sudden demise
- Treatment: if >28 weeks – delivery safest / if <28 weeks – selective termination or laser ablation considered
describe termination of pregnancy issues in multiple pregnancies
- MC twins are identical but may have different structural abnormalities
- Selective termination of pregnancy requires closure of shared circulation so normally performed with diathermy cord occlusion
what is twin reversed arterial perfusion
One of an MC twin pair is structurally very abnormal with no or a rudimentary heart, and receives blood from other which is called the pump twin. The normal twin may die of cardiac failure and unless the abnormal twin is very small or flow to it ceases, selsective terminatin using radiofrequency ablation or cord occlusion is indicated
describe intrauterine death of twin
- Dichorionic – death of one twin in 1st trimester or early 2nd doesn’t adversely affect remaining fetus however loss in late 2nd or 3rd precipitates labour
- Monochorionic – due to shared circulation, subsequent death or neurological damage from hypovolaemia follows in upto 25% where one of the pair dies. Delivery doesn’t increase the risk of brain injury.
in multiple pregnancies describe labour
- Second twin is at increased risk of perinatal mortality
- Leading twin should be cephalic and no absolute contraindication eg placenta praevia
- Triplets and more are delivered by CS
what are the intrapartam risks of multiple pregnancy
- Malpresentation
- Foetal hypoxia in second twin after delivery of first
- Cord prolapse
- Operative delivery
- Post partum haemorrhage
- Rare- cord entanglement, head entrapment with each other, fetal exsanguination due to vasa praevia
describe the management of labour in multiple pregnancies
- Usually induced at 38 weeks (many deliver before this)
- IV access and group and save
- Fetal monitoring with CTG through labour
- Can monitor leading twin with fetal scalp electrode and other abdominally
- Epidural?
- Delivery in theatre – immediate recourse to surgical intervention if needed
- First delivered as normal
- After first deliverd – the lie of the second should be checked and stabilised by abdo palpation while VE performed to assess station of presenting part
- Ultrasound scanner in case of concerns about malpresntation of 2nd twin
- Once presenting part enters pelvis and membranes can be broken and the second twin usually delivered within 20 mins
- Ocytocin may help if contractions diminish
- Forceps or ventouse?
describe occiput posterior presentation
In occiput posterior presentation (also called sunny-side up), the fetus is head first but is facing up (toward the mother’s abdomen). It is the most common abnormal position or presentation.
When a fetus faces up, the neck is often straightened rather than bent, and the head requires more space to pass through the birth canal. Delivery by a vacuum extraction, forceps or caesarean may be necessary.
describe breech presentation
- buttocks/feet present firs
- 3-4% of full term deliveries
- 2nd most common abnormal presentation
- injuries more common
- more likely in preterm, fibroids etc, birth defect
how can breech presentation be prevented
Sometimes the doctor can turn the fetus to present head first by pressing on the woman’s abdomen before labor begins, usually after 37 weeks of pregnancy. Some women are given a drug (such as terbutaline) to prevent labor from starting too soon. If labor begins and the fetus is in breech presentation, problems may occur.
what issues may be a result of breech delivery
- Brain damage due to lack of oxygen is more common among babies presenting buttocks first than among those presenting head first.
- more frequent in first delivery as tissues not stretched
what is face presentation
neck arches back so that the face presents first.
what is brow presentation
the neck is moderately arched so that the brow presents first.
Usually, fetuses do not stay in a face or brow presentation. They often correct themselves. If they do not, forceps, vacuum extractor, or cesarean delivery may be used.
what is transverse lie
the fetus lies horizontally across the birth canal and presents shoulder first. A cesarean delivery is done, unless the fetus is the second in a set of twins. In such a case, the fetus may be turned to be delivered through the vagina.
