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Question 1

What problem did Enlightenment thinkers like Kant aim to solve with reason-based ethics?

Answer 1

The problem of religious conflicts and the lack of agreement among people of different faiths

Question 2

What is the counter to Kant’s idea of basing ethics on reason instead of faith?

Answer 2

Some argue that reason alone cannot capture the full range of human moral experiences and that faith provides a necessary foundation for moral values.

Question 3

How does Kant counter the argument that reason alone cannot capture moral experiences?

Answer 3

Kant posits that reason discovers universal laws that are not subject to personal feelings or desires, ensuring consistent and objective morality.

Question 4

What is a Good Will according to Kantian ethics?

Answer 4

A Good Will is the intention to perform one’s duty purely out of respect for the moral law.

Question 5

What is the counter to the concept of Good Will in Kantian ethics?

Answer 5

Critics argue that actions motivated by personal feelings or desires can also be morally valuable and genuine.

Question 6

How does Kant defend against the criticism that personal feelings can be morally valuable?

Answer 6

Kant maintains that while actions motivated by feelings may align with duty, they do not have moral worth unless performed out of respect for the moral law.

Question 7

What is a categorical imperative according to Kant?

Answer 7

A moral action that is necessary and must be followed universally, regardless of personal desires.

Question 8

What is the counter to the concept of categorical imperatives?

Answer 8

Some argue that moral actions should take into account specific contexts and outcomes, making hypothetical imperatives more practical.

Question 9

How does Kant respond to the criticism favoring hypothetical imperatives over categorical imperatives?

Answer 9

Kant argues that hypothetical imperatives are conditional and cannot provide a stable foundation for universal moral laws, which categorical imperatives do.

Question 10

What is the first formulation of the categorical imperative?

Answer 10

“Act only according to that maxim by which you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law.”

Question 11

What is a counterargument to the first formulation of the categorical imperative?

Answer 11

Some actions that can be universalized may still be trivial or non-moral, questioning the formulation’s effectiveness.

Question 12

How does Kant address the issue of trivial or non-moral maxims passing the universalizability test?

Answer 12

Kant’s second formulation, which requires treating people as ends and not merely as means, helps filter out non-moral or trivial actions.

Question 13

What is the second formulation of the categorical imperative?

Answer 13

“Always treat persons, whether in yourself or others, always as an end, never merely as a means.”

Question 14

What is the counter to the second formulation of the categorical imperative?

Answer 14

Critics argue that this formulation can be too rigid and may not account for complex human interactions where treating someone as a means might be necessary.

Question 15

How does Kant defend the second formulation against criticism of rigidity?

Answer 15

Kant asserts that it is acceptable to treat someone as a means, as long as they are also treated as an end and their autonomy is respected.

Question 16

What is the third formulation of the categorical imperative?

Answer 16

Act as if you were a legislating member in the universal kingdom of ends.

Question 17

What is a counterargument to the third formulation of the categorical imperative?

Answer 17

Some argue it is unrealistic to expect individuals to always act as if they were in a perfect moral world.

Question 18

How does Kant respond to the criticism of the third formulation being unrealistic?

Answer 18

Kant believes striving to act as if we live in a kingdom of ends provides a guiding ideal that promotes moral behavior and societal improvement.

Question 19

What are the three postulates of Kantian ethics?

Answer 19

God, immortality of the soul, and free will.

Question 20

What is the counter to the necessity of the three postulates in Kantian ethics?

Answer 20

Critics argue that moral reasoning should not rely on metaphysical assumptions that are not universally accepted or provable.

Question 21

How does Kant justify the necessity of the three postulates in ethics?

Answer 21

Kant argues that these postulates provide a coherent framework for justice and moral accountability, which are essential for a functioning ethical system.

Question 22

What is the issue of clashing duties in Kantian ethics?

Answer 22

Clashing duties occur when two or more duties conflict, making it impossible to fulfill both simultaneously.

Question 23

What is the counter to Kant’s handling of clashing duties?

Answer 23

Critics argue that Kantian ethics cannot resolve situations where duties genuinely conflict, undermining its practical applicability.

Question 24

How does Kant address the problem of clashing duties?

Answer 24

Kant distinguishes between perfect and imperfect duties, suggesting that imperfect duties have multiple means of fulfillment, allowing for resolution of conflicts.

Question 25

What is Kant’s stance on the relevance of consequences in moral decision-making?

Answer 25

Kant argues that consequences are irrelevant to the morality of an action since we cannot control them and are only responsible for our intentions.

Question 26

What is the counter to Kant’s dismissal of consequences in ethics?

Answer 26

Critics claim that consequences do have moral value and should be considered, as ignoring them can lead to harmful outcomes.

Question 27

How does Kant defend against the argument that consequences should be considered in moral decisions?

Answer 27

Kant argues that focusing on consequences can lead to a slippery slope where the ends justify the means, corrupting moral integrity.

Question 28

What is Kant’s view on the role of emotions in ethics?

Answer 28

Kant believes emotions are unreliable and cannot constitute moral motivation, as they are transient and fickle.

Question 29

What is the counter to Kant’s dismissal of emotions in moral motivation?

Answer 29

Critics argue that emotions can have moral value and can reliably motivate moral actions when properly cultivated, as in virtue ethics.

Question 30

How does Kant respond to the argument that emotions can have moral value?

Answer 30

Kant asserts that while emotions can align with moral actions, only actions performed out of duty have true moral worth.

Question 31

What is a strength of Kant’s ethics according to its proponents?

Answer 31

Kant’s ethics provides an objective basis for universal morality, grounded in reason’s recognition of moral equality.

Question 32

What is Philippa Foot’s critique of Kant’s meta-ethics?

Answer 32

Foot argues that morality is a system of hypothetical imperatives and that categorical imperatives lack rational force and are socially conditioned.

Question 33

How does Kant defend against Foot’s critique that morality is hypothetical?

Answer 33

Kant contends that treating all rational beings as equal and not privileging one’s own ends is a rational requirement, distinguishing moral categorical imperatives from other types.