Macro Flashcards

1
Q

Define GDP

A

The value of total output of an economy in each period

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2
Q

Define economic growth

A

refers to the increase in the capacity of the economy to produce goods and services over time. It is measured by the rate of increase of real GDP

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3
Q

Define inflation rate

A

the percentage increase in the average price of goods and services

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4
Q

Gross debt

A

total liabilities owed to creditors

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5
Q

Net debt

A

total liabilities minus total assets that could be sold to raise money to pay creditors

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6
Q

Define Recession

A

a period of negative growth

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7
Q

growth calculation

A
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8
Q

Economic growth in poor countries

A

If poor countries are to catch up with the living standards of rich countries, they must grow at a faster pace.

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9
Q

what is a goal of macro policy

A

keep the economy as close to the straight line as possible, along the business cycle

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10
Q

Inflation calculation

A
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11
Q

Define a household

A

earn income which they use to purchase goods and services

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12
Q

Define a firm

A

produce goods and services which are sold in the market. Owned by households

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13
Q

how do the facotrs of production relate to economic activity

A

And all factors of production (e.g. labour and land) are owned by households, rented to firms.
- Further assume no savings, no surplus production, and no inter-firm sales.

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14
Q

explain the link between firms and households

A
  • Revenue flows into the firm are divided up into wages, rents and profits.
  • These wages, rents and profits are then taken back to households as incomes.
  • The income is then used as expenditure on the goods that the firm produces.
  • These expenditures are the firmโ€™s revenue.
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15
Q

The circular flow of income holds:

A
  1. The value of output is equal to household income ๐‘… โ‰ก ๐‘Œ.
  2. The value of output must equal the expenditure used to purchase ๐‘Œ โ‰ก ๐ธ.
  3. Expenditures must equal income ๐ธ โ‰ก ๐‘….
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16
Q

What does y stand for

A

Output (the value of all production)

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17
Q

what does e stand for?

A

The value of all expenditure on goods and services

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18
Q

what does r stand for?

A

The value of all household income

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19
Q

Intermediate goods

A

goods which fully depreciate in the production process

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20
Q

Capital goods

A

goods purchased by firms from other firms, which do not depreciate in the production process. They are used many times.

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21
Q

Capital and intermediate goods in GDP

A
  • Capital goods are final goods โ€“ we do want to include this in GDP, but not the intermediate goods.
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22
Q

Define value added

A

the change in the value of a good as it moves through the production process.

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23
Q

what does total expenditure equal

A

C + I

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24
Q

What does Household income equal

A

C + S

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25
Q

How is investment for firms funded?

A

The savings of household

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26
Q

How does savings finance investment

A
  1. Loans through the banking system (using the savings of households).
  2. Issuing debt (bonds) which are sold to households in the financial market.
  3. Issuing equity (shares) which are sold to households in the financial market.
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27
Q

How do we account for unsold production?

A
  • Unsold stocks of inventory are counted as part investment by firms,
  • When these stocks are sold in the next year, they are counted as dis-investment (negative investment) by firms.
  • Inventory counts towards GDP (as investment) in year 1, but not year 2.
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28
Q

two functions of government

A
  • Providing income transfers (benefits, pensions etc) to households
  • Providing final goods and services (education, police, bridges, etc) to households
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29
Q

How does government collect revenue

A
  1. Direct or income tax (wages, capital, rent, profits)
  2. Indirect, or expenditure tax
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30
Q

Define net taxes

A

tax minus benefit transfers:
NT โ‰ก Td โ€“ B

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31
Q

Household disposable income

A

๐‘Œ โˆ’ ๐‘๐‘‡ โ‰ก ๐ถ + ๐‘†

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32
Q

The leakages of the economy

A

๐‘† + ๐‘๐‘‡

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33
Q

The injections into the economy

A

๐ผ + ๐บ

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34
Q

what happends when ๐บ โˆ’ ๐‘๐‘‡ = 0

A

balanced budget so S = I

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35
Q

what happends when ๐บ โˆ’ ๐‘๐‘‡ > 0

A

Budget deficit so S > I โ€“> Households finance the deficit

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36
Q

what happends when ๐บ โˆ’ ๐‘๐‘‡ < 0

A

budget surplus so ๐‘† < ๐ผ โ€“> Government pays down the deficit

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37
Q

Imports

A

Goods purchased from foreigner firms by domestic households and firms.
- Imports are not part of domestic output. We need to account for them in final expenditure.

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38
Q

Exports

A

Goods sold to foreigners by domestic firms.
- Exports are part of domestic output.

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39
Q

Net Exports value

A

NX = X โ€“ Z

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40
Q

What happens when ๐‘๐‘‹ > 0

A

trade surplus

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41
Q

What happens when ๐‘๐‘‹ < 0

A

trade deficit

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42
Q

Nominal GDP

A

GDP computed at current prices

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43
Q

Real GDP

A

GDP computed at the prices of a base year

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44
Q

GDP deflator

A
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45
Q

Gross National Product

A

the value of all income earned by citizens in a country.

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46
Q

example of german who works in london on GDP and GNP

A
  • Contributes to UK, not German, GDP.
  • Contributes to German, not UK, GNP.
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47
Q

Investment from foreign to domestic country

A
  • Contributes to domestic GDP.
  • Contributes to foreign GNP.
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48
Q

Full capacity output

A

The maximum level of output an economy can achieve at a given period by using all inputs at full capacity.

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49
Q

Potential output

A

The level of output the economy can achieve using all inputs at โ€œnormalโ€ capacity.

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50
Q

Recession

A

A period of slow to negative economic growth for which the actual output starts to diverge from the potential output.

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51
Q

Boom

A

A period of rapid economic growth in which the difference between actual output and full capacity output becomes small.

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52
Q

Phases of the business cycle

A
  1. The upturn: the economy is below trend output but slowly recovering.
  2. The expansion: The economy experiences rapid economic growth.
  3. The peaking out: Growth slows down or even ceases.
  4. The recession: GDP starts to fall (negative growth).
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53
Q

Keynesian cross model - overview

A
  • Aggregate output fluctuations are caused by changes in aggregate demand.
  • In periods of recession or boom, the government can use policy to move the economy back to potential output.
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54
Q

Keynesian cross model - assumptions

A
  • Prices, rents, and wages are all fixed.
  • Firms always produce what demand requires.
  • Workers are always available to work at current wage.
  • Firms always have spare capacity that can profitably be used at current prices.
  • There are always resources available at current rents.
  • We start with two agents: households and firms
  • Government and foreign trade will be added.
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55
Q

What does the Keynesian cross model consist of

A

Investment: Firms desired or planned additions to physical capital and inventories.
Consumption: Household demand for goods and services.

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56
Q

The Consumption Function

A

๐ถ = ๐ด + ๐‘๐‘Œ
- ๐ด > 0
- 0 < ๐‘ < 1

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57
Q

What does the consumption function show

A

The desired aggregate household consumption at each level of aggregate income.

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58
Q

What is A in the consumption function

A

The part of consumption that does not depend on income, called autonomous consumption. This is the level of consumption at ๐‘Œ = 0.

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59
Q

What is c in the consumption function

A

The marginal propensity to consume. It is the amount of each additional pound in income that is
consumed (rather than saved.)

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60
Q

MPC in different households

A
  • A very poor household is likely to immediately spend any extra income they earn. Their MPC is relatively high.
  • A very wealthy household is likely to spend very little of a small income change. Their MPC is relatively low.
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61
Q

Marginal propensity to save

A

1 - c

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62
Q

Relationship between conumption and saving function

A

The steeper the consumption functions the flatter the saving function.

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63
Q

Savings function

A

๐‘† = ๐‘Œ โˆ’ ๐ถ
= ๐‘Œ โˆ’ ๐ด โˆ’ ๐‘๐‘Œ
= โˆ’๐ด + (1 โˆ’ ๐‘)๐‘Œ

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64
Q

what is aggregate demand the sum of

A

consumption and investment

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65
Q

what does the 45degree line correspond to

A

the circular flow

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66
Q

In equilibrium

A

In equilibrium ๐‘Œโˆ— = ๐ถ + ๐ผ
We know that ๐‘Œโˆ— = ๐ถ + ๐‘†
Therefore, in equilibrium it must be the case that ๐‘† = ๐ผ

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67
Q

autonomous spending and investment calculation

A

๐‘Œโˆ— = ๐ด + ๐ผ/(1 โˆ’ ๐‘)

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68
Q

what is the multiplier

A
  • A change in AD leads to a change in output which leads to a change in household income which leads to a change in AD.
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69
Q

multiplier calculation

A

1/1-c

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70
Q

what happens when desired savings fall

A
  • At ๐‘Œ0โˆ—: ๐‘† < ๐ผ (not in equilibrium)
  • As incomes rise from ๐‘Œ0โˆ— to ๐‘Œ1โˆ—, households increase their savings.
  • This happens until ๐‘† = ๐ผ.
  • Notice, there is no change in savings
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71
Q

Summarise an increase in A

A
  • Decrease in C
  • Decrease in Y
  • No change in S
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72
Q

Consumer Confidence

A
  • Shifts in A and I are often due to change in consumer and firm confidence.
  • we assume that confidence about the future is independent of current income levels.
  • If households and firms lack confidence in the outlook for the economy, they will increase savings (put off investment).
  • If households feel less wealthy, they will increase savings (put off investment).
  • The government will try and deter system-wide increases in savings during times of recession.
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73
Q

Fiscal policy

A

the governmentโ€™s policy on spending and taxes

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74
Q

Stabilisation policy

A

refers to actions taken by the government to minimize movements in aggregate demand and output (keep it close to potential output).

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75
Q

Budget deficit

A

the excess of government spending over government receipts (taxes) each year.

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76
Q

national debt

A

the stock of outstanding government debt.

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77
Q

What are the two ways that government can finance spending?

A
  1. Tax (provide benefits) at a constant rate proportional to income.
  2. Collect taxes as a lump-sum (not conditional on income).
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78
Q

Tax (provide benefits) at a constant rate proportional to income.

A
  • Let ๐‘ก be the net tax rate: the rate of taxation, less rate of benefit transfer.
  • Tax revenues will be ๐‘ก๐‘Œ, where 0 < ๐‘ก < 1.
  • Disposable household income will be ๐‘Œ๐‘‘ = (1 โˆ’ ๐‘ก)๐‘Œ
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79
Q

Collect taxes as a lump-sum (not conditional on income).

A
  • Let ๐‘๐‘‡ be the net tax: taxes less benefits transfer.
  • Tax revenues will be ๐‘๐‘‡.
  • Disposable household income will be ๐‘Œ๐‘‘ = ๐‘Œ โˆ’ ๐‘๐‘‡
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80
Q

The consumption function written in terms of disposable income (PT)

A

C = ๐ด + ๐‘(1 โˆ’ ๐‘ก)๐‘Œ

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81
Q

AD written in terms of disposable income (PT)

A

AD = ๐ด + ๐‘(1 โˆ’ ๐‘ก)๐‘Œ + ๐ผ + ๐บ

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82
Q

What does an increase in G do to the AD curve (PT)

A

Shift it up

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83
Q

what happen to the AD curve when t increases (PT)

A

AD curve pivots, becoming less
steep.

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84
Q

Equilibrium output with government spending (PT)

A
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85
Q

impact of tax on the multiplier (PT)

A
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86
Q

Household disposable income (LST)

A

๐‘Œ๐‘‘ = ๐‘Œ โˆ’ ๐‘๐‘‡

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87
Q

The consumption function written in terms of disposable income (LST)

A

๐ถ = ๐ด + ๐‘(๐‘Œ โˆ’ ๐‘๐‘‡)

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88
Q

AD written in terms of disposable income (LST)

A

๐ด + ๐‘(๐‘Œ โˆ’ ๐‘๐‘‡) + ๐ผ + ๐บ

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89
Q

What does an increase in G do to the AD curve?

A

shift it up

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90
Q

What does an increase in NT do to the AD curve?

A

shift the AD curve down

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91
Q

NT and G increasing by the same amount

A

If ๐‘๐‘‡ increases by the same amount as ๐บ, the AD curve shifts down, but not all the way back.

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92
Q

Equilibrium output for LST

A
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93
Q

Multiplier for LST

A

1/1-c
- However, the shift in government spending is offset by the decrease in household
disposable income.

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94
Q

What is a balanced budget?

A

A balanced budget means that the government will set taxes such that government
spending is always covered.

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95
Q

How has taxation been adjested in a balanced budget?

A

so that NT = G

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96
Q

What happens when the government runs a balanced budget

A

government spending offset by a tax
increase will always increase in output.

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97
Q

why is using a balanced budget multiplier as a fiscal tool indefinetely not feasible

A
  • It involves raising taxes for greater expenditures.
  • It involves replacing some private spending (in the form of household consumption) with public spending.
  • Once we include interest rates in the model, we will also see that government spending โ€œcrowds outโ€ capital investment from firms.
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98
Q

Savings in equilibrium

A

๐‘† = ๐ผ + ๐บ โˆ’ ๐‘๐‘‡

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99
Q

How does household savings finance investment by firms

A
  • Through the banking system
  • Shares
  • Bonds
  • Government bonds.
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100
Q

Budget deficit

A

when total government spending is greater than total tax revenue ๐บ > ๐‘๐‘‡.

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101
Q

Budget surplus

A

when total government spending is less than total tax revenue ๐บ < ๐‘๐‘‡.

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102
Q

automatic stabilisers

A

used to dampen the response of the economy to shocks.

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103
Q

automated taxes and transfers

A

they work by offsetting the economyโ€™s response to
contraction and expansion.

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104
Q

equlibrium when we have a proportional net tax

A
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105
Q

multiplier when we have a proportional net tax

A
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106
Q

a positve demand shock on output

A

A positive demand shock will cause output to increase above its potential level

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107
Q

a negative demand shock on output

A

A negative demand shock will cause
output to decrease below its
potential level

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108
Q

what is the policy objectives for shocks to AD

A

Our policy objective is to make the deviations from ๐‘Œbar as small as possible.

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109
Q

Investment shock without tax

A
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110
Q

Investment shock with a proportional tax

A
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111
Q

Discretionaty fiscal policy

A

decisions that are made, on a case-by-case basis, to change
spending/tax rates to stabilize aggregate demand.

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112
Q

fiscal stimulus

A

A discretionary increase in spending, or cut to taxes, is referred to as fiscal stimulus. An example of this is the furlough scheme used during the pandemic.

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113
Q

what does austerity mean

A

a reduction in ๐‘ฎ โˆ’ ๐‘ต๐‘ป.

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114
Q

Analysis of why a recession is the wrong time for austerity

A
  • Austerity worsens economic output declines.
  • Stabilization policy uses proportional taxes, deficits in downturns, and surpluses in booms.
  • Full-capacity economy assumptions alter analysis conclusions.
  • Full-capacity leads to government spending crowding out private spending.
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115
Q

trade deficit

A

When ๐‘‹ โˆ’ ๐‘ < 0

116
Q

trade surplus

A

When ๐‘‹ โˆ’ ๐‘ > 0

117
Q

import demand function

A

๐‘ = ๐‘ง๐‘Œ
- little z is MPZ

118
Q

what does a high domestic income mean for trade balance

A

trade deficit

119
Q

what does a low domestic income mean for trade balance

A

trade surplus

120
Q

Equilibrium including x and z

121
Q

what does a small value of z do to the AD curve

A

pivot it up

122
Q

what does a large value of z do to the AD curve

A

pivot it down

123
Q

if exports are higher than imports

A

more is sold to foreigners than is purchased from them. This extra income is part of savings (holding all else constant).

124
Q

if imports are higher than exports

A

more is purchased from foreigners than is sold to them. This suggests a decrease in savings (holding all else constant).

125
Q

what is money

A

Money is any generally accepted means of payment for delivery of goods or settlement of debt.

126
Q

functions of money

A
  1. Medium of exchange of goods and services
  2. Unit of account in which prices are quoted and accounts are kept
  3. Store of value.
  4. Standard of deferred payment (enables borrowing and lending)
127
Q

what is fiat money

A

A currency without intrinsic value.

128
Q

what is commodity money

A

the actual use of a valued commodity as a form of money.

129
Q

what is representative money?

A

is money that represents a claim on a commodity.

130
Q

what are commerical banks

A

Commercial banks are a financial intermediary, coordinating activities
between savers and borrowers.

131
Q

bank reserves

A

the money that a bank has available to meet possible withdrawals from depositors.

132
Q

reserve ratio

A

the percent of all deposits that banks keep on hand to meet
withdrawals.

133
Q

money supply

A

the value of the stock of all money in circulation.

134
Q

monetary base

A

the value of currency either in circulation or held in reserves.

135
Q

monetary base function

A

๐‘๐‘๐ท + ๐‘๐‘๐ท

136
Q

money supply function

A

๐‘๐‘๐ท + ๐ท

137
Q

money multiplier

138
Q

financial asset

A

a piece of paper entitling the owner to a stream of payments over a specified period.

139
Q

liquidity

A

the speed at which an asset can be turned into money.

140
Q

solvency crisis

A

when an institutionโ€™s assets have become less than its liabilities.

141
Q

liquidity crisis

A

when an institution is temporarily unable to meet immediate payment requests.

142
Q

bills

A
  • Short term asset with a known date of repurchase at the known price.
  • High liquidity.
143
Q

bonds

A
  • Longer-term
  • Medium liquidity
144
Q

perpetuities

A
  • A type of a bond which is never repurchased by the issuer. Interest payments made forever.
  • Medium liquidity
145
Q

equities

A
  • Company shares, entitling the owner to receive corporate dividends.
  • Low liquidity.
146
Q

role of the central bank

A
  1. Issue bank notes (ยฃยฃยฃยฃ).
  2. Lender of last resort
  3. Banker to the government
  4. It may also be the job of the Central Bank to police the financial system.
  5. Monitoring and controlling the money supply, interest rates & inflation.
147
Q

How can the central bank influence the money supply

A
  1. Reserve requirements
  2. Setting the bank rate
  3. Open market operations
148
Q

The yield calculation

149
Q

relationship between price and interest rate

150
Q

real money supply

151
Q

why do we hold money

A
  1. Transaction - we do not buy and sell things at the same time.
  2. Precautionary - we hold money for unexpected costs that may arise.
  3. Asset - money has very low risk, but also very low return.
152
Q

what is the primary benefit to holding money

A
  • Higher consumption means higher money demand.
  • Money demand is increasing with income (ceteris paribus).
153
Q

the cost of holding money

A
  • All wealth held in money rather than bonds forgoes the interest that bonds earn.
  • The cost of holding money is greater when the interest on bonds is greater.
  • Money demand is decreasing with interest rates (ceteris paribus).
154
Q

What happens to the cost of borrowing money following an increase in the return on bonds

155
Q

what happens to the demand for money when the rate of interest decreases

156
Q

What happens to demand as income increases

A
  • Households need more cash for consumption transactions.
  • Holding all else constant, the demand for real balances
    increases.
157
Q

demand equation for real money balances

A

๐ฟ๐ฟ = ๐›ผ + ๐›ฝ๐‘Œ โˆ’ ๐›พ(๐‘Ÿ โˆ’ ๐‘Ÿ๐‘‘)

158
Q

Given the money demand schedule ๐ฟ๐ฟ, the Central Bank can either:

A
  • Set the interest rate and let the money supply adjust.
  • Set the money supply and let the interest rate adjust.
159
Q

Endogenous variables in the money market - moves along the curve

A

Interest rates, ๐‘Ÿ

160
Q

Exogenous variables in the money market - shift curves

A

Income/output, ๐‘Œ
Nominal money balances, ๐‘€
Price level, ๐‘ƒ

161
Q

how does changing the interest rate effect households?

A
  • Lower interest rates imply higher price of bonds โ‡’ Households feel wealthier, consumption increases.
  • Lower interest rates imply lower cost of borrowing, increasing spending on consumer durables (housing, cars, furniture) , consumption increases.
162
Q

how does changing the interest rate effect investment by firms?

A

Lower interest rates imply lower cost of borrowing, increasing investing by firms.

163
Q

goods market equilibrium

A

defined by output level ๐‘Œโˆ—, such that aggregate demand and actual income (output) are equal.

164
Q

money market equilibrium

A

defined by interest rate ๐‘Ÿโˆ—, such that money demand is equal to money supply.

165
Q

IS schedule

A

combinations of ๐‘Œ and ๐‘Ÿ for which the goods market is in equilibrium.

166
Q

MP schedule

A

combinations of ๐‘Œ and ๐‘Ÿ for which the money market is in equilibrium.

167
Q

Shifts in the IS curve

A
  • Anything that shifts the AD curve for a given interest rate will shift the IS curve.
  • Changes in ๐บ.
  • Exogenous changes in ๐ถ or ๐ผ that are not due to changes in ๐‘Ÿ.
168
Q

Shifts in the MP curve

A
  • Changes in the money supply (๐ฟ) for a given income level will shift the MP curve.
169
Q

impact of increase government spending on spending

A
  • Public spending has crowded out private spending โ€“ investment spending has decreased.
170
Q

Quantitive easing

A

refers to action taken by the central bank to increase the
money supply.

171
Q

quantitive tightening

A

refers to action taken by the central bank to decrease the money supply.

172
Q

monetary financing

A

Monetary financing refers to an arrangement whereby the central bank creates money to finance a government deficit.

173
Q

what effects the slope of the MP curve?

A
  • The slope of the Monetary Policy (MP) curve represents the change in interest rates resulting from changes in output.
  • This slope is determined by the responsiveness of money demand to output fluctuations.
174
Q

Flat MP curve

A
  • Money demand is not
    very responsive to changes in output.
  • Fiscal policy is effective.
  • Little change in ๐‘Ÿ, large change in ๐‘Œ.
  • Minimal crowding out of private spending.
175
Q

Steep MP curve

A
  • Money demand is very
    responsive to changes in output.
  • Fiscal policy is largely ineffective.
  • Large change in ๐‘Ÿ, little change in ๐‘Œ.
  • Government spending has a large crowding out effect on private spending โ€“ small increase in output is at the expense of a reduction in investment.
176
Q

what effects the slope of the IS curve?

A
  • The IS curveโ€™s slope reflects how output changes with interest rate variations.
  • This depends on how sensitive aggregate demand is to interest rate changes, specifically investment and consumption.
  • High sensitivity (large AD shifts) leads to a flat IS curve.
177
Q

Flat IS curve

A
  • ๐ผ and ๐ถ are very sensitive to changes in the interest rate.
  • Monetary policy is effective.
  • Output is highly responsive to changes in the interest rate.
178
Q

Steep IS curve

A
  • ๐ผ and ๐ถ are not very
    sensitive to changes in the interest rate.
  • Monetary policy is relatively ineffective.
  • Output does not respond to changes in the interest rate.
179
Q

Fiscal Policy - increase in government spending

A
  • Increase in government spending increases AD โ†’ IS shifts right
  • Output increases, which leads to an increase in interest rates, which decreases investment spending.
  • This adjustment stops when we arrive at the new equilibrium.
  • Output has increase, interest rates have increased.
  • Government spending has crowded out some investment spending.
180
Q

Monetary policy increase in money supply

A
  • Central bank increases the money supply โ†’ MP curve to the right.
  • Interest rates decreases, as a result firms want to increase their investment spending.
  • There is a feedback between the goods market and money market as output and interest rates adjust.
  • This adjustment stops when we reach the new general equilibrium.
  • Output has increase, interest rates have decreased. Investment spending has increased.
181
Q

Pros of monetary policy to stimulate the economy

A
  • Works by stimulating private investment andconsumption.
182
Q

Cons of monetary policy to stimulate the economy

A
  • Zero (nominal) lower-bound!
  • May be slow to work.
  • Cannot be โ€œtargetedโ€.
183
Q

Pros of fiscal policy to stimulate the economy

A
  • Can work fast (e.g. job retention scheme).
  • Can be targeted.
184
Q

Cons of fiscal policy to stimulate the economy

A
  • May lead to a crowding out of private consumption.
  • Lots of disagreement about the size of the multiplier.
185
Q

When should we use fiscal policy versus monetary policy to simulate the economy?

A

The answer depends on the shape of these curves!
- If the MP curve is steep (households and firms are sensitive to interest rate changes) use monetary policy - The fiscal spending multiplier will be low, lots of crowding out.
- If the MP curve is flat (households and firms are not sensitive to interest rate changes) use fiscal policy - The fiscal spending multiplier will be high.

186
Q

Small open economy

A
  • Small means that the countries decisions will not affect world prices (world prices are exogenous).
  • An open economy has trade and financial links to other countries (foreign economies) which will impact the domestic economy.
187
Q

foreign exchange market

A

This is where the currency of one country is exchanged for the currency of a different country.

188
Q

exchange rate

A

The price (in units of domestic currency) at which a foreign can be purchased

189
Q

exchange rate calculation

190
Q

appreciation

A

Appreciation of domestic currency refers to an increase in the exchange rate

191
Q

Depreciation

A

Depreciation of domestic currency refers to a decrease in the exchange rate

192
Q

market for foreign exchange

A
  • A higher exchange rate (USD/GBP) means pounds are more expensive for foreigners.
  • This makes domestic goods and services pricier.
  • Consequently, the foreign demand for pounds decreases.
193
Q

Impact on foreign demand as ER decreases

A

Foreign demand increases - demand for pounds is decreasing with exchange.

194
Q

UK demand for foreign goods, when ER decreases

A

UK demand for iPhones foreign goods when the exchange rate decreases โŸน supply of pounds is increasing with exchange.

195
Q

Where can the supply of the pound in the foreigne exchange market come from?

A
  1. Firms, households and government purchases of foreign goods and services.
  2. Central monetary authority for the purpose of influencing the exchange rate.
196
Q

If the central bank wishes to decreases the exchange rate what should they do

A

shift the supply curve right

197
Q

If the central bank wishes to increases the exchange rate what should they do

A

shift the supply curve left

198
Q

exchange rate regime

A

refers to the governmentโ€™s policy with respect to how exchange rates are determined.

199
Q

fixed exchange rate

A

actions are taken by the central bank to fix exchange rates at a pre-determined level.

200
Q

floating exchange rate

A

the exchange rate is determined by the market for foreign exchange equilibrium.

201
Q

benefits of a fixed regime

A
  • A fixed exchange rate regime provides stability.
  • This is attractive to foreign and domestic investors.
  • Can be used to avoid inflation (i.e. gives the central bank a money-supply target)
202
Q

cost of a fixed regime

A
  • Central bank must always keep a large stock of foreign reserve.
  • If capital is perfectly mobility in and out of country, country will lose control of its interest rate.
203
Q

Nominal exchange rtae vs purchasing power

A

Nominal exchange rates reflect the exchange rate between different currencies, but they do not tell us about the purchasing power of different currencies.

204
Q

the real exchange rate

A

reflects the relative price of actual goods and services when measured in different currencies.

205
Q

real exchange rate calculation

206
Q

Purchasing power parity

A

the hypothetical nominal exchange rate that makes the same โ€œbasket of goodsโ€ in two countries cost the same.

207
Q

balance of payments

A

a record of all transactions between the residents of one
country and the rest of the world.

208
Q

current account

A

measures the real value of trade balances (Exports-Imports). This was previously denoted by ๐‘๐‘‹ = ๐‘‹ โˆ’ ๐‘ โ‰ˆ ๐ถ๐ด.

209
Q

increasing and decreasing of the capital account

A

The current account is increasing in foreign income, decreasing in domestic income, and decreasing with the exchange rate.

210
Q

capital account

A

the difference between the value of domestic assets purchased by foreign investors and the value of foreign assets purchased by domestic investors.

211
Q

what does the capital account depend on

A

The capital account depends positively on the difference between the domestic interest rate and the foreign interest rate.

212
Q

Balance of payments equation

A

๐ต๐‘ƒ = ๐ถ๐ด + ๐‘˜๐ด

213
Q

If ๐ถ๐ด > 0

A

then the country is in a current account surplus, income from foreign spending exceeds spending on foreign goods.

214
Q

If ๐ถ๐ด < 0

A

then the country is in a current account deficit, income from foreign spending is less than spending on foreign goods.

215
Q

In equilibrium the balance of payments must sum to

216
Q

what happends to the current account when domestic income increases

A

CA decrease

217
Q

what happends to the current account when foreign income increases

A

CA increases

218
Q

what happends to the current account when exchange rate increases

A

CA decreases

219
Q

what happens when the domestic interest rate is greater than the foreign interest rate

A

capital flows into the domestic economy and the capital account increases

220
Q

what happens when the domestic interest rate is less than the foreign interest rate

A

capital flows out of the domestic economy and the capital account decreases

221
Q

capital mobility

A

how easily can an investor move funds (financial capital) in and out of a country.

222
Q

perfect capital mobility means ..

A

that there are no impediments to funds flowing from one
currency to another.

223
Q

An increase in domestic income will increase import demand, leading to a โ€ฆ

A

current account deficit

224
Q

To solve the CA deficit and return to equilibrium what must happen

A
  • Interest rates must rise.
  • Foreign investment flows in, increasing the capital account.
225
Q

Slope of the BP curve reflects the mobility of capital:

A
  • Perfect capital mobility is reflected by a horizontal BP curve.
  • Perfectly immobile capital is reflected by a vertical BP curve.
226
Q

What happens when domestic interest rates are higher than foreign interest rates

A

demand for domestic currency increase, which leads to currency appreciation

227
Q

What happens when domestic interest rates are lower than foreign interest rates

A

demand for domestic currency decrease, which leads to currency depreciation.

228
Q

what happens to goods when the curency depreciaties e.g. ER decreases

A

domestic goods become relatively inexpensive

229
Q

what happens to goods when the curency appreciates e.g. ER increases

A

domestic goods become relatively expensive

230
Q

what happens to NX when the curency depreciaties

A

NX increases, AD shifts up

231
Q

what happens to NX when the curency depreciaties

A

NX decreases, AD shifts down

232
Q

When the domestic currency depreciates (e decreasing) - imports and exports

A
  • Imports are becoming expensive relative to domestic goods
  • Foreigners find exports relatively cheap.
  • The IS curve shifts right.
    WIDEC
233
Q

When the domestic currency appreciates (e increasing) - imports and exports

A
  • Imports are becoming cheap relative to domestic goods
  • Foreigners find exports relatively expensive.
  • The IS curve shifts left.
234
Q

Fiscal policy with a fixed ER

A

Consider an increase in government spending:
- The domestic economy moves to point B.
- At B, ๐‘Ÿ > ๐‘Ÿ๐‘“.
- Demand for domestic currency leads to currency appreciation (๐‘’ โ†‘).
- To stop the appreciation, the Bank increases the supply of domestic currency.
- The MP curve shifts to new equilibrium C.
- Fiscal policy is effective in increasing output

235
Q

Monetary policy with a fixed ER

A
  • Does not work.
236
Q

expansionary fiscal policy on a floating exchange rate

A
  • The government increases spending, which shifts the IS curve right.
  • At domestic equilibrium B, ๐‘Ÿ > ๐‘Ÿ๐‘“.
  • This increase in domestic interest rates leads to an appreciation in the domestic currency.
  • Currency appreciation shifts the IS curve left (as net exports fall).
  • The economy shifts back to equilibrium A.
  • Fiscal policy is completely ineffective (crowds out exports).
237
Q

expansionary monetary policy on a floating exchange rate

A
  • The money supply increases shifting the MP curve right.
  • At domestic equilibrium B, ๐‘Ÿ < ๐‘Ÿ๐‘“.
  • Reduction in the demand for domestic currency (for investment) โ‡’ devaluation of currency.
  • The currency devaluation means that net exports increase โ‡’ IS curve shifts right.
  • This happens until the new equilibrium at C is reached.
  • Monetary policy is effective.
238
Q

A decrease in foreign exchange rate (fixed)

A
  • ๐‘Ÿ๐‘“ decreases, (holding ๐‘’ and ๐‘Œ๐‘“ constant)
  • Domestic currency starts to appreciate (currency demand increase in foreign exchange).
  • Central bank responds by increasing the funds in foreign exchange market.
  • Domestic interest rate falls to foreign interest rate.
  • Investment and household spending increases in response to the lower interest.
  • Output increases
239
Q

A decrease in foreign exchange rate (floating)

A
  • ๐‘Ÿ๐‘“ decreases, (holding ๐‘’ and ๐‘Œ๐‘“ constant)
  • Domestic currency starts to appreciate (currency demand increase in foreign exchange).
  • Domestic goods are becoming expensive relative to foreign goods.
  • Net exports fall.
  • Money demand decreases, until domestic and foreign interest rates are equal.
  • Output falls overall.
240
Q

An increase to foreign exchange rate

A
  • increase ๐‘Ÿ๐‘“, holding ๐‘’ and ๐‘Œ๐‘“ constant.
  • At interest rate ๐‘Ÿ1we are in a BP deficit.
  • Capital begins to leave the UK seeking the higher foreign interest rate, ๐‘Ÿ1๐‘“.
  • Domestic currency depreciates.
  • Currency depreciation leads to an increase in the demand for domestic goods and services, as well as an increase in the domestic interest rate.
241
Q

The quantity theory of money

A

The quantity theory of money states that the price level is directly proportional to the
nominal money supply.

242
Q

what does the quantity theory of money suggest about nominal money supply and price level

A

A % change in nominal money supply โ†’ same % change in the price level.

243
Q

what is velocity

A

The speed at which the stock of money passes around the economy.

244
Q

what is the equation of exchange

A

๐‘€๐‘‰ = ๐‘ƒ๐‘Œ

245
Q

how do we calculate velocity

A

where PY is the nominal value of transactions and M is the money supply

246
Q

Why is inflation bad

A
  • Shoe leather costs: The negative effects of inflation can be avoided by holding less money. This means that people will make more frequent trips to the bank to change their savings into cash.
  • Menu costs: It is costly for firms to change their prices.
  • Misallocation costs: If some businesses find it easier to change their prices than others, then inflation distorts the role of prices in reflecting the relative value of different goods and services.
247
Q

winners and losers from inflation

A
  • Consider a mortgage. I borrow money from my bank and agree to pay back the nominal amount + interest in the future.
  • I use that money to purchase a house.
  • If there is unanticipated inflation the nominal value of the money, I pay back remains unchanged, however the real amount decreases.
  • My house maintains its real value (its nominal value increases).
  • Inflation benefits borrowers but hurts lenders.
248
Q

what happens if inflation is bad

A

a) The lending system can break down entirely, as lenders become unwilling to agree to nominal contracts.
b) People want to change their nominal holdings into real holdings. This leads to more inflation.

249
Q

fisher equation

250
Q

What does the AD curve reflect

A

The AD curve reflects the quality of output demanded by the economy at any given price level.

251
Q

How does the price level effect aggregate demand - Consumption

A

Wealth effect.
- Simple economy in which the only goods are food and clothing.
- Individuals have a fixed nominal wealth.
- Inflation increases the price of food and clothing by the same amount, but does not affect nominal wealth.

252
Q

How does the price level effect aggregate demand - Investment

A

Real interest rates

253
Q

How does the price level effect aggregate demand - Net exports

A

Exchange rate effect.
- Foreign demand is increasing when the real value of domestic goods and services decreases.

254
Q

AS curve

A

The AS curve shows the total supply of goods and services in the economy at each price level (inflation).

255
Q

Where does supply come from?

A
  • Firms making production decisions.
  • Individuals supplying labour.
  • Resources and production technologies available in the economy.
256
Q

On the AS curve, at low levels of output, below potential output:

A
  • Capital is underutilized at current rents,
  • Labour is underutilized at current wages,
  • Firms and workers are always willing to provide more output with no effect on inflation.
257
Q

How does supply change with changes in the general price levels?

A
  • If a firm that experiences a doubling in the cost of production and a doubling in the price of its goods will not change production.
  • Workers that experience a doubling of wages and a doubling of all prices will not change labour supply.
258
Q

Fiscal policy, Classical model - increase in government spending

A
  1. The increase in ๐บ causes aggregate demand to shift right.
  2. Now ๐ด๐ท > ๐ด๐‘†, therefore the general price level starts to increases.
  3. The increase in the general price level means households reduce their spending (negative wealth effect), net exports decreases.
  4. At the new equilibrium, the general price level has increased, and government spending has lead to full crowding out of private spending (no change in ๐‘Œ).
259
Q

monetary policy in the classical model - when inflation is greater than the bankโ€™s target

A
  • If ๐œ‹0 > ๐œ‹โˆ— then the central bank can tighten its monetary policy (shift ๐‘–๐‘– up).
  • This increases the real interest rate at all levels of inflation.
  • This will lead to a leftward shift in the AD curve.
260
Q

What is the output gap

A

Output gap reflects the deviation of output from its long-run trend (potential).

261
Q

Sticky wages

A

The classical model assumes that inflation reflects a uniform change across all prices and wages in the economy.
- No relative price changes.
- It must be that all prices are changing by the same amount at the same time.

262
Q

Reasons to question the assumption that wages adjust instantly:

A

Employees find it costly to leave their employer, even for higher wages elsewhere.
Work contracts restrict the ability of firms to adjust employee hours and wages
when market conditions change

263
Q

In the short-run, output is only affected by inflation when

A

๐‘Ž๐‘๐‘ก๐‘ข๐‘Ž๐‘™๐‘™๐‘ฆ ๐‘–๐‘›๐‘“๐‘™๐‘Ž๐‘ก๐‘–๐‘œ๐‘› โ‰  ๐‘’๐‘ฅ๐‘๐‘’๐‘๐‘ก๐‘’๐‘‘ ๐‘–๐‘›๐‘“๐‘™๐‘Ž๐‘ก๐‘–๐‘œ๐‘›

264
Q

๐‘Ž๐‘๐‘ก๐‘ข๐‘Ž๐‘™ ๐‘–๐‘›๐‘“๐‘™๐‘Ž๐‘ก๐‘–๐‘œ๐‘› > ๐‘’๐‘ฅ๐‘๐‘’๐‘๐‘ก๐‘’๐‘‘ ๐‘–๐‘›๐‘“๐‘™๐‘Ž๐‘ก๐‘–๐‘œ๐‘›

A

output prices grow faster than wages. Firms increase output โŸน positive output gap.

265
Q

a๐‘๐‘ก๐‘ข๐‘Ž๐‘™ ๐‘–๐‘›๐‘“๐‘™๐‘Ž๐‘ก๐‘–๐‘œ๐‘› < ๐‘’๐‘ฅ๐‘๐‘’๐‘๐‘ก๐‘’๐‘‘ ๐‘–๐‘›๐‘“๐‘™๐‘Ž๐‘ก๐‘–๐‘œ๐‘›

A

output prices grow slower than wages. Firms decrease output โŸน negative output gap.

266
Q

what happens to wages in the long-run

A

In the long-run wages adjust to new inflation expectations and output returns to the
potential output.

267
Q

aggregate labour marketโ€™s ability to clear depends on the time frame - SR

A
  • Fluctuations in labour supply come largely from hours (as opposed to employment).
  • Employees can be asked to work more or fewer hours.
  • Wages are unlikely to change.
268
Q

aggregate labour marketโ€™s ability to clear depends on the time frame - MR

A
  • Firms begin to adjust their permanent work force.
  • Employment contracts come up for renegotiation.
  • This puts pressure on wages.
269
Q

aggregate labour marketโ€™s ability to clear depends on the time frame - LR

A
  • All contacts are renegotiated.
  • Wages fully adjust to new labour demand.
270
Q

The SAS curve can shfit fro two reasons

A
  1. A change in the inflation expectations, ๐œ‹๐‘’.
  2. A supply shock.
271
Q

What does the SAS curve show

A

The relationship between the output gap and inflation.

272
Q

When output deviates from potential output, we see

A

a movement along the SAS curve.

273
Q

The slope of the SAS curve, ๐œƒ, reflects

A

how responsive prices/wages are to changes in inflation.

274
Q

When ๐œƒ is close to 0

A

wage stickiness is high.

275
Q

A larger value of ๐œƒ suggests

A

that wages are less sticky (close to the classical model).

276
Q

What happens following a negative demand shock

A
  • AD falls and firms respond by lowering prices (but not wages) and output.
  • As time passes, inflation expectations change; firms and workers begin to renegotiate wage contracts.
  • After enough time, all wage contracts are renegotiated in line with new lower inflation expectations.
    Short run: Output falls (and employment) and then gradually increases, prices and wages gradually fall.
    Long-run: No change to output, lower prices and wages.
277
Q

What happens following a positive demand shock

A
  • AD increases and firms respond by increasing prices (but not wages) and output.
  • As time passes, inflation expectations change; firms and workers begin to renegotiate wage contracts.
  • After enough time, all wage contracts are renegotiated in line with new higher inflation expectations.
    Short run: Output increases (and employment) and then gradually decreases, prices and wages gradually increase.
    Long-run: No change to output, higher prices and wages.
278
Q

A temporary shock to supply

A

Shift in short-run supply, but not long-run supply.
- SAS shifts right, inflation falls below target at the current level of output.
- Excess demand at lower prices drives up prices. Positive output gap (C).
- Eventually, short-run supply shifts back to its original position (A).

279
Q

permanent shocks to supply

A
  • Technology increase leads to higher productivity.
  • Both AS and SAS curves shifts right.
  • Inflation and output move to short-run equilibrium, B.
  • In the short run there is a negative output gap.
  • Firms and workers adjust their inflation expectations downwards, shifting the SAS curve right.
  • Inflation and output move to C.
280
Q

what are the banks 3 choices following a temporary shock in supply

A
  1. Stabilize inflation.
  2. Stabilize output.
  3. Something in-between.
281
Q

what is the taylor rule

A

A Taylor rule describes this more complicated monetary policy - how responsive are nominal interest rates (๐‘Ÿ) to deviations in inflation versus output.

282
Q

taylor rule in terms of nominal interest rates

A

๐‘Ÿ โˆ’ ๐‘Ÿโˆ— = (1 + ๐‘Ž)( ๐œ‹ โˆ’ ๐œ‹โˆ—) + ๐‘(๐‘Œ โˆ’ ๐‘Œโˆ—)

283
Q

What happens following an increase in government spending.

A
  • AD increases - this leads to a positive output gap and increases inflation.
  • However, prices for output are increasing faster than wages.
  • Over time, inflation expectations change, and workers and firms renegotiate wages.
  • The output gap shrinks.
  • Eventually, all wages are renegotiated, so wage growth is back in line with inflation.
284
Q

The adjustment process when the central bank wishes to lower its target rate of inflation.

A
  • Output falls as does inflation. Now growth in wages is greater than growth in output prices.
  • Overtime, workers and employers revise their inflation expectations and renegotiate wage contracts.
  • Eventually, when all wages are renegotiated, we return to the long run equilibrium, with a new lower inflation rate.
  • The adjustment to the new inflation rate necessitates a decline in output.
285
Q

What happens following a decrease in interest rate policy.

A
  • Business investment and household consumption increase, shifting aggregate demand.
  • In the short-run, output and inflation both increases.
  • Over time, output begins to fall, but inflation continues to increase.
  • Eventually, output returns to its potential level, but inflation is much higher.
  • Cutting interest rates will exacerbate inflation!