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A-Level Biology > M5, C14 Hormonal Communication > Flashcards

M5, C14 Hormonal Communication Flashcards

1
Q

define hormones

A

chemical messengers that carry a signal to a target organ or tissue

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2
Q

define endocrine glands

A

glands that secrete a hormone directly into the blood.

they have no tubes or ducts

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3
Q

What is the simple hormonal pathway

A

endocrine gland -> blood -> receptor on target tissue

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4
Q

define target cells

A

only specific cells have complementary receptors for the hormone
this means that hormones can travel around in the blood and only affect the correct target tissue

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5
Q

what are the two types of hormone

A

non-steroid / protein

steroid

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6
Q

how do steroid hormones interact with the target cell

A

it’s lipid soluble so pass through lipid component of the cell membrane and bind to steroid hormone receptors to form hormone-receptor complex
the receptors are present in cytoplasm or nucleus
a hormone-receptor complex is formed and acts as a transcription factor which in turn facilitates or inhibits the transcription of a specific gene

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7
Q

how do non-steroid hormones interact with the target cell

A

they are hydrophilic so can’t pass directly through the cell membrane
they bind to specific receptors on the cell-surface membrane on target cell
triggers a cascade reaction mediated by chemicals called second messengers

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8
Q

What are the 2 glands in the pancreas?

A

Exocrine

Endocrine

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9
Q

What’s the function of the exocrine gland in the pancreas?

A

Produces digestive enzymes and pancreatic juice which are secreted into ducts which lead to the pancreatic duct.
They then go to the duodenum (top part of small intestine)

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10
Q

What are the 3 main digestive enzymes the exocrine gland produces in the pancreas?

A

Amylases (break down starch into simple sugars)

Proteases (break down protein into amino acids)

Lipases (break down lipids into fatty acids and glycerol)

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11
Q

What is the function of the endocrine gland in the pancreas?

A

Produces the hormones insulin and glucagon.

They control blood glucose concentration.

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12
Q

Where is endocrine tissue found in the pancreas?

A

Within exocrine tissue there are small regions of endocrine tissue called islets of Langerhans. This is where the hormones are produced and secreted.

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13
Q

What is the structure of the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas?
What do the different cells produce?

A 
There are 2 different types of cell:
Alpha cells (produce and secrete glucagon)
Beta cells (produce and secrete insulin)

Alpha cells more numerous and large

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14
Q

On a microscope how could you differentiate between the alpha and beta cells in the islet of Langerhans?

A

Using differential staining

E.g. staining beta cells blue and alpha cells pink

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15
Q

What is the structure of the endocrine tissue in the pancreas?

A

Within islets of Langerhans
Lightly stained
Large, spherical clusters

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16
Q

What is the structure of the exocrine tissue in the pancreas?

A

Pancreatic acini
Darker stained
Small berry-like clusters

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17
Q

define negative feedback

A

any change to the optimum condition will result in a series of events leading to the reversal of the change

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18
Q

what do these terms mean?
lysis
genesis
neo

A

lysis: to split/breaking down
genesis: forming/creating
neo: new

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19
Q

how does the body react when blood glucose concentration levels rise

A
  • beta cells secrete insulin into the bloodstream.
  • insulin binds to glycoprotein receptor causing a change in tertiary structure of glucose transport protein channels so more glucose enters cells. There is a higher uptake of blood glucose from blood.
  • rate of glycogenesis is increased. liver stimulated to remove glucose from blood. glycogen is stored in liver and muscle cells.
  • glucose is converted into fat
  • release of glucagon from alpha cells is inhibited
  • insulin in constantly secreted because enzymes in the liver break it down.
  • when levels lower again, beta cells detect it and insulin secretion is reduced
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20
Q

how does the body react when blood glucose concentration levels fall

A
  • alpha cells detect fall and glucagon is secreted into bloodstream
  • glucagon receptors are on liver and fat cells
  • glycogenolysis - liver breaks down its glycogen into glucose and release into blood.
  • glucose that’s absorbed into liver is reduced
  • gluconeogenesis - increasing conversion of amino acids and glycerol into glucose in the liver
  • when levels rise again, alpha cells detect this and secretion of glucagon is reduced
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21
Q

what causes type 1 diabetes

who normally gets it

A

beta cells don’t produce insulin
may be caused by and autoimmune response where the body attacks its own beta cells
normally begins in childhood

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22
Q

what causes type 2 diabetes

A

beta cells don’t produce enough insulin OR a person’s body cells don’t respond properly to insulin
glycoprotein insulin receptor on cell membrane doesn’t work properly.
cells lose responsiveness to insulin so don’t take up enough glucose.
due to excess body weight, inactivity or overeating of carbohydrates
risk of getting it increases with age

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23
Q

Give some examples of symptoms someone with type 1 diabetes may suffer from and why

A

tiredness - cells aren’t taking up the glucose so they’re not respiring as much meaning less energy is created

weight loss - can’t store glucose as glycogen so reserves come from muscle and fat

excessive urination - there’s so much glucose in blood that the kidney can’t reabsorb it all, hence being urinated out

excessive thirst - the glucose has to be urinated which cause more water to due to osmosis, hence having the need to drink more

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24
Q

what is the difference between hypoglycaemia and hyperglycaemia

A

hypoglycaemia - very low blood glucose concentration

hyperglycaemia - very high blood glucose concentration

both lead to unconsciousness and death

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25
Q

what are some treatments for type 1 diabetes

A

medically produced insulin - comes from genetically engineered bacteria that is modified to produce human insulin

beta cell injection - stem cells from embryos could be used to create beta cells

pancreas transplant

26
Q

what is the average resting heart beat for a healthy young person

A

70bpm

27
Q

what nervous system controls the heart rate

A

autonomic nervous system

28
Q

what is the role of the accelerator nerve

where’s it found

A

found in sympathetic nervous system

when stimulated, it releases neurotransmitter at sino-atrial node to increase heart rate

29
Q

what is the role of the vagus nerve

where’s it found

A

found in parasympathetic NS

when stimulated, it releases neurotransmitter at SA node to decrease heart rate

30
Q

what happens to heart rate when carbon dioxide concentration increases

A
  • the pH of blood decreases (more acidic) because carbonic acid is formed when carbon dioxide interacts with water in the blood.
  • chemoreceptors detect the decrease in pH and a response is triggered
  • heart rate increases
  • blood flows more quickly to lungs so carbon dioxide can be exhaled
31
Q

what happens to heart rate when carbon dioxide concentration decreases

A
  • pH of blood rises which the chemoreceptors detect
  • the frequency of nerve impulses sent to medula oblongata reduces
  • this means the frequency of impulses sent to sino-atrial node also reduces
  • heart rate decreases
32
Q

what happens to heart rate when blood pressure increases

A
  • baroreceptors detect change
  • impulses sent to medula oblongata
  • this sends impulses along parasympathetic neurones to SAN to decrease heart rate
  • blood pressure is reduced back to normal
33
Q

what do chemoreceptors do

where are they found

A

detect changes in levels of chemicals eg. carbon dioxide

found in aorta, carotid artery and medula oblongata

34
Q

what happens to heart rate when blood pressure decreases

A
  • baroreceptors detect change
  • impulses sent to medula oblongata
  • impulses sent along sympathetic neurones to SAN to increase heart rate
  • blood pressure increases to normal
35
Q

what do baroreceptors do

where are they found

A

detect changes in blood pressure

found in aorta, vena cava and carotid arteries

36
Q

give some examples of hormones involved with increasing heart rate

A

when stressed, adrenaline and noradrenaline are released
these affect the pacemaker region of the heart
they increase the frequency of impulses produced by SAN to speed up heart rate

37
Q

Compare the hormonal and nervous system

A

Hormonal is by chemicals called hormones, nervous is by nerve impulses.
Hormonal transmission is by blood, nervous is by neurones.
Hormonal transmission is slow, nervous is fast.
Hormones travel to all parts of body but only target organs respond, nerve impulses travel to specific parts of body.
Hormonal response is widespread, nervous is localised.
Hormonal response is slow, nervous is fast.
Hormonal response is often long lasting, nervous is short lived.
Hormonal effect may be permanent and irreversible, nervous is temporary and reversible.

38
Q

What are the adrenal glands

What is the structure

A

2 small glands on top of each kidney

Made of adrenal cortex (outer region) And adrenal medulla (inner region)

39
Q

What are the 3 main hormones the adrenal cortex releases

A

Glucocorticoids
Mineralocorticoids
Androgens

40
Q

What are the 2 main hormones the adrenal medulla releases

A

Adrenaline

Noradrenaline

41
Q

what is the function of glucocorticoids made by the adrenal cortex

A

Includes cristol which helps regulate metabolism by controlling how the body converts fats, proteins and carbs into energy. Cristol also regulates blood pressure in response to stress.

Corticosterone is another hormone released which regulates the immune response and suppress inflammatory reactions. Controlled by hypothalamus.

42
Q

what is the function of mineralocorticoids made by the adrenal cortex

A

Main hormone produced is aldosterone which controls blood pressure by maintaining a balance between salt and water concentrations in blood and body fluids.
The release is mediated by signals triggered by the kidney.

43
Q

what is the function of androgens made by the adrenal cortex

A

male and female sex hormones
the impact is relatively small compared to other hormones
important for women during the menopause

44
Q

what is the function of adrenaline

A

increases the heart rate sending blood quickly to the muscles and brain
rapidly raises blood glucose concentration levels by converting glycogen to glucose in the liver

45
Q

what is the function of noradrenaline

A

works with adrenaline in response to stress
increases heart rate, widens pupils, widens air passages in the lungs and narrows blood vessels in non-essential organs to increase blood pressure

46
Q

The control of insulin secretion

A

1) increase in blood flux conc
2) glucose into cells via transporter protein
3) high glucose conc in cell thus glucokinase converts glucose into glucose-6-phosphate
4) glucose-6-phosphate turns into two pyruvates
5) pyruvates enter Mitochondria forming lots of ATP
6) potassium ion channel open and k ions leave this increase in positive charges on outside (increase in potential difference) - inside cell negative relative to outside of the cell
7) ATP increase cell thus ATP sensitive channels close - inside becomes positive relative to outside
8) voltage dependent channels detect change in pd and open and ca ions move in by diffusion due to ec gradient
9) ca increase forces vesicles containing insulin to undergo exocytosis and release insulin into the blood

47
Q

Why glycogen used as storage molecule

A

Insoluble thus prevents water moving in down wp and causing cell lysis

48
Q

Why glycogen used as storage molecule

A

Insoluble thus prevents water moving in down wp and causing cell lysis

49
Q

Type 2 treatment (non insulin dependent)

A

Regulate persons carb intake through diet and matching to their exercise levers
Increases exercise levels

-BGC drugs used including drugs to stimulate insulin production (drugs slowing down rate at which body absorbs glucose)

Waist hip ratio and bmi used to indicate overweight

50
Q

Effect of glucagon on liver cells

A

1) glucagon receptor site has shape complementary to glucagon
2) adenyl Cyclase become active due to glucagon receptor complex
3) adenelyl cyclase converts ATP to cAMP which can activate other enzymes in the cell
4) increase in cAMP activates protein kinase enzymes
5) they’re phosphorylated and become active (change shape of enzyme)
6) triggers conversion of glycogen to glucose
7) glucose released from liver/ muscle cells into blood
8) blood glucose conc increases

51
Q

Action of adrenaline

A

1) adrenaline receptor site has shape complementary to glucagon
2) adenyl Cyclase become active due to adrenaline receptor complex
3) adenelyl cyclase converts ATP to cAMP which can activate other enzymes in the cell
4) increase in cAMP activates protein kinase enzymes
5) they’re phosphorylated and become active (change shape of enzyme)
6) triggers conversion of glycogen to glucose
7) glucose released from liver/ muscle cells into blood
8) blood glucose conc increases

52
Q

Glycolysis

A

Break down of glucose

53
Q

Glycogenesis

A

Making glucagon

54
Q

Glycogenolysis

A

Breaking down glycogen

55
Q

Gluconeogenesis

A

Making new glucose from proteins or fats

56
Q

How does insulin decrease glucose levels

A

1) insulin binds to plasma membrane glycoprotein receptor and causes change in tertiary structure of glucose transport protein channels. This causes the channels to open allowing more glucose to enter the cells for respiration and glycogenesis
2) Increases rate of absorption of glucose by cells
3) increasing respiratory rate of cells
4) inhibiting release of glucagon from alpha cells of isles of langerhans

57
Q

Blood glucose control

A

NEGATIVE FEEDBACK

58
Q

Define endocrine

  • gland
  • duct
  • exocrine
A
  • ductless gland
  • group of cells that’ll secrete a substance
  • duct = tube that carries substance secreted by gland
  • gland with a duct
59
Q

Adrenaline gland structure

A

Two parts - middle names medulla - releasing adrenaline

Outer named cortex = releases cortisol which is stress hormone

60
Q

Define CRF and ACTH

A

CRF = corticotropin releasing hormone

ACTH = adrenocorticotropic hormone

A-Level Biology (23 decks)

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