M1 Flashcards
Is memory fixed or malleable?
Memory is malleable; it is not fixed.
Do we remember as much as we think we do?
No, we don’t remember as many things as we think we do.
How does memory filter experiences?
It filters experiences that are most relevant to us.
How accurate are our memories?
Our memories are not as accurate as we think they are.
What role does interpretation play in memory?
Our interpretations play an important role in shaping our memories.
What is the relationship between language and memory?
Language is memory.
Who is Clive Wearing?
He is one of the most severe cases of amnesic patients.
At what age do people typically start noticing a decline in memory?
In their 40s, especially with single-time episodes.
What are some scientifically supported ways to improve memory?
- pay attention
- use imagery
- engage multiple senses (write it, speak it, see it)
- sleep well
- relax
- create associations
- practice
- reduce overload
- use rhymes
- re-create the learning event
- exercise.
How does sleep help memory?
Sleep consolidates memory, a critical neurobiological process for memory longevity.
Why might studying in a stressful state be helpful for some people?
If someone usually experiences stress during tests, studying in a similar state can create an environmental match that helps with recall.
What is the spacing effect according to Eich’s reading?
Spacing effect –> learning is more effective when study sessions are spread out over time rather than massed together.
Do people intuitively believe spaced practice is better than massed practice?
No, study participants overwhelmingly believe that massed practice is better, even though the research shows spaced practice is more effective.
What is the testing effect?
Testing your knowledge of material leads to better long-term retention than simply re-studying it.
Why does the testing effect work?
Reviewing creates familiarity but does not reinforce learning; active recall strengthens memory, and testing helps retention even without feedback.
When did the history of memory studies begin?
In ancient Egypt and Ancient Greece.
What are the key philosophical questions about memory?
- Are we shaped by inheritance or experience?
- How are memories formed?
What is the nativist perspective on memory and learning?
Nativists believe humans are shaped mainly by biological inheritance (nature) and that abilities are fixed at birth.
What was Plato’s view on learning and talent?
He believed we are born with innate differences in skill and talent and suggested ‘sorting by quality’ at birth.
What is the empiricist perspective on memory and learning?
Empiricists believe humans are shaped mainly by experience (nurture), meaning learning and talent come from training and exposure.
What was Aristotle’s view on memory?
He believed knowledge and talent come from training and experience, not inheritance, and thought the heart (not the brain) was critical for memory.
What is Aristotle’s theory of associationism?
Memory depends on forming linkages between events or ideas:
- Continuity – Nearby experiences are linked.
- Frequency – Repeated experiences are connected.
- Similarity – Similar experiences are linked.
What did John Locke believe about learning?
He argued that children are born as a “blank slate” (tabula rasa) and are shaped by experiences.
What was William James’ contribution to memory studies?
He taught the first psychology course in America and proposed that memories are linked in association networks.
Who was Hermann Ebbinghaus, and what was his contribution to memory research?
Conducted the first rigorous memory experiments, mostly on himself, and developed the forgetting curve –> rapid memory loss in the first 24 hours.
What were some limitations of Ebbinghaus’ experiments?
- He only tested himself.
- The materials (nonsense words) lacked personal relevance and context.
- His manipulations were tightly controlled but not reflective of real-world learning.
What was Marigold Linton’s focus in memory research?
She studied biographical memory, performed experiments on herself, and was the first Indigenous woman in the U.S. to earn a PhD in psychology.
What is classical conditioning, as demonstrated by Ivan Pavlov?
An organism learns to respond to a previously neutral stimulus when it is repeatedly paired with a biologically significant stimulus (e.g., dogs salivating to a bell).
What are extinction and generalization in classical conditioning?
- Extinction: Weakening of a learned response when the stimulus is no longer paired with a reward or punishment.
- Generalization: Responding to similar stimuli beyond the original conditioned one (e.g., drooling to different shades of blue).
How does generalization relate to PTSD?
PTSD symptoms can be triggered by cues similar to the original traumatic event, showing how generalization affects memory and emotional responses.
What is Thorndike’s Law of Effect?
Behaviors followed by positive outcomes persist, while those with negative outcomes disappear.
What is instrumental/operant conditioning?
The process where organisms learn to make responses to obtain or avoid consequences.
What is behaviorism, according to John Watson?
A psychological school of thought that studies only observable behaviors and avoids inferring mental processes.
What did Skinner mean by radical behaviorism?
He argued that free will is an illusion and that behavior is simply learned responses
What was Edward Tolman’s view on how rats learn?
He believed rats, like humans, are intrinsically motivated to learn and form cognitive maps of their environment.
What is a cognitive map, according to Tolman?
An internal representation of the spatial layout of the world, allowing rats (and humans) to navigate environments.
What is latent learning, and why is it important?
Latent learning occurs without immediate rewards or punishments and remains undetected until needed. It showed that animals don’t just learn behaviors—they form mental representations.
How did Tolman’s work bridge cognitive and behavioral psychology?
He used experiments to infer mental states, proving that learning isn’t just about stimulus-response connections but also internal processes.
What was Endel Tulving’s major contribution to memory research?
He introduced the concept of multiple memory systems, influencing how we understand different types of memory storage and retrieval.
What was Karl Lashley searching for in the brain, and what did he conclude?
He searched for the engram (physical memory trace) but found no single cortical area was more important than another, leading to the theory of equipotentiality (the brain operates as a unit for memory storage).
What is phrenology, and why is it considered pseudoscience?
Phrenology claimed that skull measurements could predict personality and abilities, but it was scientifically inaccurate and used to justify sexism and racism.
How does neuropsychology study memory?
By examining brain function and behavior, especially in patients with brain damage, to understand how different brain areas contribute to memory.
Who was Brenda Milner, and what was her key contribution to memory research?
She studied patients with brain lesions, including Patient H.M., who had severe memory loss after the removal of his medial temporal lobes to treat epilepsy.
What was Richard Semon’s contribution to memory research?
He coined the term engram (physical memory trace) and introduced ecphory, the process of retrieving memories when triggered by parts of the original experience.
What is the focus of cognitive neuroscience?
Cognitive neuroscience focuses on research in humans, particularly in understanding how the brain supports cognition and behavior.
What is behavioral neuroscience?
Behavioral neuroscience focuses on research in non-human animals, using behavioral measures to make inferences about brain functions, without directly measuring the mind.
What is the difference between localization of function and equipotentiality?
Localization of function –> suggests that certain brain regions have specialized roles (e.g., visual cortex, hippocampus),
Equipotentiality –> proposes that the brain works as a network and various parts can take over functions if needed.
Today, we believe there is some specialization, but the brain works as a network.
How do we orient the human brain in anatomical terms?
- Anterior/Rostral = front
- Posterior/Caudal = back
- Superior/Dorsal = top
- Inferior/Ventral = bottom
What is the cortex of the brain responsible for?
Cortex = outer surface of the brain, involved in many functions, including higher-order cognition and perception.
What are the main roles of the brainstem and cerebellum?
Brainstem –> regulates automatic functions such as breathing and body temperature.
Cerebellum –> important for motor coordination and movement regulation, also known as the “little brain.”
What do brain scans, like coronal slices, show?
Coronal slices offer detailed views of brain structures like the hippocampus. Different slice types (coronal, sagittal, horizontal) help visualize the brain in 3D.
What are the main functions of each lobe of the brain?
- Frontal lobe: Planning and action
- Temporal lobe: Language, auditory processing, learning, and memory
- Parietal lobe: Processing sensory information, particularly touch
- Occipital lobe: Visual processing
How does comparative neuroanatomy show differences in brain size and specialization?
Humans have a larger cerebral cortex relative to other animals like dolphins and chimps, which may support our higher cognitive abilities.
Brain size differs across species based on specialization—for example, birds have larger cerebellums for motor control necessary for flight.
How are different sensory inputs processed in the brain?
Sensory pathways are specialized:
- Light is processed by the primary visual cortex.
- Sound by the primary auditory cortex.
- Touch by the primary somatosensory cortex.
Other regions are responsible for generating movements, like the primary motor cortex.
What is the difference between grey matter and white matter?
- Grey matter contains cell bodies of neurons, appearing darker.
- White matter contains axons, which have a myelin sheath that appears whiter and helps transmit signals efficiently.
What are some brain regions involved in memory?
Subcortical regions important for memory include the basal ganglia, thalamus, amygdala, and hippocampus.
How is the brain connected to the rest of the body?
The central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) connects to the body via the peripheral nervous system (organs, muscles).
What are the basic components of a neuron?
A neuron has three main parts:
- Dendrites (receive signals)
- Cell body (integrates signals)
- Axons (transmit signals, covered in myelin for fast transmission).
What are glial cells, and what is their role?
Glial cells support neurons in various ways:
Astrocytes: Line blood vessels in the brain.
Oligodendrocytes: Wrap axons in myelin.
Their functions may also include contributing to changes in neural connections.
How does neuronal communication work?
Neurons communicate across synapses:
- Presynaptic neurons release neurotransmitters into the synapse.
- Postsynaptic neurons have receptors to detect these neurotransmitters.
This process involves both electrical and chemical signaling.
What is Hebbian learning?
Hebbian learning is a process where neurons that fire together wire together, meaning repeated activation strengthens the connections between neurons.
What is long-term potentiation (LTP)?
LTP is a form of synaptic plasticity where synaptic transmission becomes more effective after repeated stimulation, believed to support learning and memory.
What are the subcortical brain regions involved in memory?
- Basal ganglia: Involved in movement and reward processing.
- Thalamus: Acts as a relay station for sensory and motor signals to the cortex.
- Amygdala: Involved in emotional processing, especially fear and memory.
- Hippocampus: Critical for forming new memories and spatial navigation.
What happens at the synapse during neuronal communication?
- The action potential in the presynaptic neuron triggers the release of neurotransmitters into the synapse.
- Neurotransmitters cross the synapse and bind to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron.
- This can either increase or decrease the likelihood of the postsynaptic neuron firing, depending on whether the neurotransmitter is excitatory or inhibitory.
What are some key types of neurotransmitters, and how do they function?
- Excitatory neurotransmitters (e.g., Glutamate): Increase the likelihood of the postsynaptic neuron firing.
- Inhibitory neurotransmitters (e.g., GABA): Decrease the likelihood of the postsynaptic neuron firing.
- Neuromodulators (e.g., Dopamine, Serotonin): Modulate activity across large networks of neurons, affecting mood, attention, and behavior.
What are the two main types of declarative memory?
- Episodic memory: Consciously retrieved memories of unique events, bound by event-specific details (e.g., a birthday party).
- Semantic memory: Consciously retrieved knowledge of non-personal facts (e.g., “Paris is the capital of France”).
Can animals maintain episodic memories?
- Some researchers believe animals cannot maintain episodic memories, while others suggest that certain animals, like scrub jays, can remember specific events (e.g., food caching behavior).
- Scrub jays show preferences for retrieving food based on whether it spoils (worms vs. nuts), suggesting episodic memory.
What are the main causes of amnesia?
- Stroke: Blockage or burst of a blood vessel in the brain.
- Virus (e.g., encephalitis): The hippocampus is especially vulnerable.
- Anoxia/Hypoxia: Reduced oxygen affecting the hippocampus.
- Traumatic brain injury: Can affect the hippocampus and surrounding regions.
- Surgical resections: Removal of brain tissue, especially in cases of tumors or epilepsy.
What are the main types of amnesia?
- Anterograde amnesia: Impaired ability to form new memories after the onset of amnesia.
- Retrograde amnesia: Loss of memories formed before the onset of amnesia.
- Transient global amnesia: Temporary memory loss with unclear causes.
- Psychogenic amnesia: Linked to psychological stress or trauma, sometimes affecting identity.
Who is Clive Wearing and how does his case contribute to understanding amnesia?
- Clive Wearing suffered from encephalitis, resulting in profound amnesia.
- His hippocampus and other areas were severely affected, leading to severe anterograde amnesia and partial retrograde amnesia.
- He almost died, but his case provides insight into how the hippocampus supports memory formation.
What happened in the case of Patient HM, and what does it reveal about memory?
- Patient HM underwent bilateral removal of the medial temporal lobes (MTL), including the hippocampus, to treat seizures.
- Post-surgery, his IQ, short-term memory, and perception were relatively intact, but he suffered from severe long-term memory loss (anterograde amnesia).
- His case suggests that the hippocampus is crucial for forming new episodic memories but does not significantly affect semantic memory.
What is the difference between anterograde and retrograde amnesia?
- Anterograde amnesia: Inability to form new memories after the onset of amnesia.
- Retrograde amnesia: Loss of memories formed before the onset of amnesia.
- Patients like HM have anterograde amnesia for episodic memories and relative sparing of semantic memory.
Can semantic and episodic memory dissociate after brain injury?
- Yes, semantic and episodic memories can dissociate following brain injury.
- However, in the healthy brain, they usually interact and work together.
What brain regions are involved in declarative memory?
Medial temporal lobes (MTL), which include:
- Hippocampus
- Entorhinal cortex
- Perirhinal cortex
- Parahippocampal cortex
These regions are crucial for forming episodic memories, especially the hippocampus, which is active during both encoding and retrieval.
What is the role of the hippocampus in episodic memory?
Hippocampus = key role in episodic memory, especially for new learning (anterograde memory).
Research (Patient HM) –> hippocampus = vital for forming new episodic memories but may have a less clear role in recalling older memories (retrograde memory).
What is the debate about autonoetic knowledge in relation to episodic memory?
Autonoetic knowledge –> refers to the human ability to be self-aware of one’s memories.
Some researchers believe that this self-aware aspect of consciousness, unique to humans, is necessary for maintaining episodic memory. This is contrasted with animals, which may be able to remember events without this level of self-awareness.
What is unique about Clive Wearing’s memory loss?
Clive Wearing (encephalitis) –> severe anterograde amnesia, he cannot form new memories.
- Profound loss of episodic memory, forgets events within seconds.
- However, his retrograde memory (memories from before the illness) is relatively spared.
Can retrograde amnesia result in the total loss of all past memories?
No, retrograde amnesia often results in a loss of episodic memories (events) but does not always impair semantic memory (facts). Some patients with retrograde amnesia retain knowledge of life facts but cannot remember specific events from their past.
How is the hippocampus involved in old vs. new episodic memories?
The hippocampus plays a crucial role in forming new episodic memories (anterograde). However, there is disagreement among scholars about its role in retrieving old episodic memories (retrograde). Some believe it is necessary for the retrieval of old memories, while others argue that it is primarily involved in new memory formation.
What are the two main types of neuroimaging in cognitive neuroscience?
- Structural imaging – focuses on brain structure (e.g., MRI, DTI).
- Functional imaging – focuses on brain activity (e.g., fMRI, EEG).
What is Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI), and what is it used for?
DTI is a subtype of MRI that produces color images and is used to image white matter in the brain. It helps detect axonal damage and is used in clinical settings to study diseases like multiple sclerosis, schizophrenia, traumatic brain injury, and diffuse axonal injury, which cannot always be detected by a regular MRI.
What does Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) measure?
fMRI measures changes in blood flow in the brain using blood oxygenation level-dependent (BOLD) imaging. It tracks the amount of oxygenated hemoglobin that is not absorbed by neurons, providing an indirect measure of brain activity.
What are the three main analytical approaches used in fMRI research?
- Blobology – Examines overall brain activation in a region.
- Functional connectivity – Studies how different brain regions interact.
- Voxel-based patterns – Zooms in on smaller voxels (brain pixels) to analyze patterns of activation.
What is the difference between resting-state fMRI and task-based fMRI?
- Resting-state fMRI – Measures brain activity while a person is at rest, with no specific task.
- Task-based fMRI – Measures brain activity while the person performs a specific cognitive task.
How does Electroencephalography (EEG) work?
EEG measures electrical activity in the brain using electrodes placed on the scalp. It provides high temporal resolution but does not give detailed images of brain structures like MRI or fMRI.
What is the difference between temporary and permanent lesions in neuroscience research?
- Temporary lesions – Can be induced (e.g., by cooling or chemicals) to study short-term effects.
- Permanent lesions – Result from injury, disease, or surgical removal, allowing researchers to study long-term effects.
What is the role of MRI in studying brain structure?
MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) provides black-and-white images of brain structure. It allows researchers to examine brain damage, detect bleeding or atrophy, and investigate stroke effects. MRI is also used for correlational research, such as studying individual differences in brain volume.
What is a double dissociation in neuroimaging studies?
A double dissociation occurs when two brain regions are functionally distinct, with each affecting a different cognitive function.
* Example: Broca’s area affects speech production, while Wernicke’s area affects speech comprehension.
Damage to one area impairs one function but not the other, confirming functional specialization.
What are the advantages and limitations of fMRI?
Advantages:
* Good spatial resolution (can locate activity precisely).
* Safe and non-invasive.
Limitations:
* Slow temporal resolution (activity changes take ~5 seconds to appear).
* Requires participants to remain still, which can be difficult with motor tasks.
What is subtraction analysis in fMRI?
Subtraction analysis is a method used to determine brain activity by comparing images from different conditions.
* Example: Brain activity during a cognitive task is subtracted from baseline activity to isolate relevant neural processes.
Why is DTI useful for studying brain injuries?
DTI is used to visualize white matter pathways in the brain. It is particularly useful for detecting traumatic brain injury (TBI) and diffuse axonal injury, which may not be visible with a standard MRI scan.
