mᥱdιᥴιᥒᥱ Flashcards
How were medical texts spread in the Medieval Era?
Monks hand-wrote them
In the Medieval era, were most literate or illiterate?
Illiterate
What were attitudes to change like in the Medieval Era?
Held resistance to change and respect for tradition and ancient ideas
Who did the Church base their idea of medicine on in the Medieval era and why?
Galen because his theories supported the Christian idea of one God
What did Kings and the government do about public health in the Medieval era?
Kings had no duty to improve health so the government had little power to make any changes
How were physicians educated in the Medieval era?
Through reading books - disallowed from dissection or experimentation so that they could not disprove Galen
Who was Roger Bacon?
A man who challenged the Church and Galen and was therefore imprisoned
MEDIEVAL CAUSES OF DISEASE: God & Religion
There was a ___ of ___ knowledge so people ___ on the ___ to understand ___. The ___ taught ___ stories which described how ___, such as ___, was a ___ from ___. People treated this with ___, ___, ___ or the King’s ___, which was said to ___ diseases such as ___. Some believed that ___ and avoiding ___ could prevent this.
MEDIEVAL CAUSES OF DISEASE: God & Religion
There was a lack of scientific knowledge so people relied on the Church to understand disease. The Church taught Bible stories which described how illness, such as leprosy, was a punishment from God. People treated this with prayer, Mass, pilgrimage or the King’s touch, which was said to cure diseases such as scrofula. Some believed that bathing and avoiding sin could prevent this.
MEDIEVAL CAUSES OF DISEASE: Astrology
The idea of astrology being a cause of disease was first ___ by the ___ until after the ___ ___ as they believed it to be a form of ___ ___. They later ___ it, for it ___ with ___ theory that the ___ and ___ affected the ___. This led to ___ checking the ___ charts of patients to ___ them.
MEDIEVAL CAUSES OF DISEASE: Astrology
The idea of astrology being a cause of disease was first rejected by the Church until after the Black Death as they believed it to be a form of fortune telling. They later accepted it, for it aligned with Hippocrates’ theory that the stars and planets affected the humours. This led to physicians checking the star charts of patients to diagnose them.
MEDIEVAL CAUSES OF DISEASE: Four Humours
Largely supported by the ___ for being a theory of ___, people believed that the four humours (___, ___ bile, ___ bile, ___) would cause disease when ___. It was a very ___ theory and so was ___ to ___. ___ then came up with the ___ of ___ to ___ unbalanced humours - for example, using ___ to undergo ___ if you had too much ___. ___ and ___ remedies were also ways to treat this. To prevent this, the ___ were given a ‘___ ___’, personalised ___ to keep the humours ___.
MEDIEVAL CAUSES OF DISEASE: Four Humours
Largely supported by the Church for being a theory of Hippocrates, people believed that the four humours (blood, yellow bile, black bile, phlegm) would cause disease when unbalanced. It was a very detailed theory and so was hard to challenge. Galen then came up with the Theory of Opposites to treat unbalanced humours - for example, using leeches to undergo bloodletting if you had too much blood. Purging and herbal remedies were also ways to treat this. To prevent this, the rich were given a ‘Regimen Sanitatis’, personalised instructions to keep the humours balanced.
MEDIEVAL CAUSES OF DISEASE: Miasma
The idea that ___ ___ caused disease. This was ___ by the ___ for it ___ with ___ teachings of ___ and was also a theory of ___ and ___. People would prevent this by ___, hanging ___ herbs up or ___ around whilst smelling something like a ___.
MEDIEVAL CAUSES OF DISEASE: Miasma
The idea that bad smells caused disease. This was supported by the Church for it aligned with religious teachings of sin and was also a theory of Hippocrates and Galen. People would prevent this by bathing, hanging sweet herbs up or walking around whilst smelling something like a posy.
MEDIEVAL HEALERS: Physicians
Physicians were ___ in ___ using a book called the ___. They were only ___ to the ___ and they used ___ charts, ___ charts and the humours to ___ patients. They did not ___ patients or perform ___, but simply ___ remedies ___ symptoms and ___ them.
MEDIEVAL HEALERS: Physicians
Physicians were educated in universities using a book called the Articella. They were only affordable to the rich and they used star charts, urine charts and the humours to diagnose patients. They did not treat patients or perform surgery, but simply matched remedies to symptoms and diagnosed them.
MEDIEVAL HEALERS: Barber Surgeons
Very ___ surgeons who lacked ___ but could perform ___ surgeries such as the pulling out of ___. The more ___ surgeons would be permitted to set ___, but they were highly ___ because they were highly ___.
MEDIEVAL HEALERS: Barber Surgeons
Very cheap surgeons who lacked training but could perform basic surgeries such as the pulling out of teeth. The more skilled surgeons would be permitted to set limbs, but they were highly expensive because they were highly trained.
MEDIEVAL HEALERS: Apocatheries
They were ___ places which ___ and ___ herbal ___ to people. They used herbal ___ such as the ___ ___ to do this.
MEDIEVAL HEALERS: Apocatheries
They were affordable places which mixed and offered herbal remedies to people. They used herbal manuals such as the Materia Medica to do this.
MEDIEVAL HEALERS: Hospitals/Monasteries
These were run by the ___ and funded by ___. Instead of ___ people, they provided ___, ___, ___ and ___. However, they were not ___ to everybody and did not accept the ___ or the ___.
MEDIEVAL HEALERS: Hospitals/Monasteries
These were run by the Church and funded by charities. Instead of healing people, they provided prayer, rest, food and hygiene. However, they were not open to everybody and did not accept the infectious or the pregnant.
MEDIEVAL HEALERS: Home
___ often grew ___ and ___ herbal remedies to look after their ___.
MEDIEVAL HEALERS: Home
Women often grew herbs and mixed herbal remedies to look after their family.
When was the Black Death and what era was this?
1348-1349, Medieval
What was the death rate for the Bubonic Plague and what was it spread by?
40%, spread by fleas on rats
What was the death rate for the Pnuemonic Plague and what was it spread by?
100%, spread by coughs and sneezes
Give three things that people in the Medieval era believed caused the Black Death?
Miasma, unbalanced humours, punishment for sin
Give three treatments people used to try and cure the Black Death?
Bursting buboes, the “Vicary Method” of rubbing a live chicken’s rump on a person’s buboes and various herbal remedies
Give three preventions people tried to stop them catching the Black Death?
Flagellation (whipping themselves to gain God’s forgiveness), actually avoiding bathing (they believed it would open their pores) and quarantine (although the local government lacked power to enforce this).
What was trepanning and what era was this mostly used in?
This was when a hole was cut in the top of a person’s skull to release evil spirits and this was mostly used in the Medieval era.
What was cauterisation and what era was this mostly used in?
This was when a piece of iron was heated in a fire and pressed onto a wound which would seal blood vessels, but would also risk severe burns and infections and this was mostly used in the Medieval era.
What natural anaesthetic was used in both the Medieval era and the Renaissance era?
Hemlock
What natural antiseptic was used in both the Medieval era and the Renaissance era?
Honey
What did voyages bring during the Renaissance era?
Opium and tobacco
How did attitudes to medicine change in the Renaissance era?
They began to reject religious ideas, believing that religion should be separate from other aspects of life which reduced the control of the Church and they also began to encourage science and experiments
What made it easier to experiment in the Renaissance era?
The advancing technology of objects such as clocks, microscopes and thermometers
When was the printing press created?
1440AD
How did the Church lose control over medical texts in the Renaissance era?
The printing press was created in 1440AD so texts were more easily spread and were therefore also cheaper
What happened to education in the Renaissance era?
It became more affordable and experiments began to be encouraged. New universities such as Cambridge were opened.
RENAISSANCE CAUSES OF DISEASE: God & Sin
People began to ___ that ___ did not send ___ despite this idea being ___ by the ___. However, they still believed that God sent ___ such as the ___ ___. Treatments no longer included ___ or ___, but people still ___ and believed in the King’s ___. There were no more ___.
RENAISSANCE CAUSES OF DISEASE: God & Sin
People began to recognise that God did not send disease despite this idea being promoted by the Church. However, they still believed that God sent epidemics such as the Great Plague. Treatments no longer included Mass or pilgrimage, but people still prayed and believed in the King’s touch. There were no more flagellants.
RENAISSANCE CAUSES OF DISEASE: Four Humours
Physicians ___ believing in this theory as it was disproved by ___, but ___ people ___ believed in this and ___ their ___ to use it. New ___ treatments were used for ___, such as a small dose of ___. People believed that having a ___ ___ would keep your humours balanced.
RENAISSANCE CAUSES OF DISEASE: Four Humours
Physicians stopped believing in this theory as it was disproved by 1700, but ordinary people still believed in this and expected their physicians to use it. New chemical treatments were used for purging, such as a small dose of Antimony. People believed that having a balanced lifestyle would keep your humours balanced.
RENAISSANCE CAUSES OF DISEASE: Miasma
This was still very ___, especially during ___ such as the ___ ___. People no longer ___ to prevent this because the disease ___ was ___ with ___ baths, so they instead ___ themselves with ___.
RENAISSANCE CAUSES OF DISEASE: Miasma
This was still very popular, especially during epidemics such as the Great Plague. People no longer bathed to prevent this because the disease syphilis was associated with public baths, so they instead rubbed themselves with linen.
RENAISSANCE CAUSES OF DISEASE: Contagion
A ___ idea that ___ in the ___ caused disease. ___ were used to measure ___ conditions and people would move ___ from ___ with ___ to prevent this.
RENAISSANCE CAUSES OF DISEASE: Contagion
A new idea that seeds in the air caused disease. Thermometers were used to measure weather conditions and people would move away from areas with disease to prevent this.
What cause of disease was no longer used in the Renaissance era?
Astrology
What 3 new treatments were introduced in the Renaissance era?
Herbal remedies to match the illness (e.g. saffron to cure jaundice)
Transference (transferring the illness to an object, e.g. rubbing an onion on a wart)
Remedies from the new world (opium and tobacco)
How was Thomas Sydenham different from Medieval doctors?
-> he did not follow the work of Hippocrates and Galen
-> refused to rely on medical books
-> believed diseases came from outside the body rather than the four humours inside the body
-> treated disease as a whole rather than by individual symptom
-> believed a person’s nature (humours, astrology) had nothing to do with disease
Ambroise Pare was a ___ surgeon who discovered that treating ___ wounds with ___ ___, ___ ___ and ___ was a more ___ method than the traditionally used ___.
Ambroise Pare was a barber surgeon who discovered that treating gunshot wounds with egg yolk, rose oil and turpentine was a more efficient method than the traditionally used cauterisation.
Andreas Vesalius wrote ‘The ___ of the ___ ___’ and disproved ___ theory by ___ dead bodies he ___ from ___. He faced lots of ___ for this.
Andreas Vesalius wrote ‘The Fabric of the Human Body’ and disproved Galen’s theory by dissecting dead bodies he stole from graves. He faced lots of opposition for this.
William Harvey discovered that blood ___ the body, disproving ___ theory that ___ was ___ by the ___ to ___ blood that had been ___ up by ___.
William Harvey discovered that blood circulated the body, disproving Galen’s theory that blood was manufactured by the liver to replace blood that had been burned up by muscles.
How did healers in the Renaissance era change from the Medieval era?
-> apothecaries had access to new chemicals for herbal remedies
-> dissection became legal for physicians
-> hospitals began to treat people’s health and offer medicine
When was the Great Plague and what era was this?
1665, Renaissance
How many people in London died in the Great Plague?
100,000
Give three things that people in the Renaissance era believed caused the Great Plague?
Miasma, contagion, punishment for sin
Give three treatments people used to try and cure the Great Plague?
Transference, making patients sweat and herbal remedies
Give three preventions people tried to stop them catching the Great Plague?
Smoking tobacco, banning public gatherings and quarantines (the infected’s doors were marked with a red X)
What were attitudes like in the 18th-19th century?
Becoming less ‘laissez-faire’ and more open to science and rationality
What was the government like in the 18th-19th century?
They began to promote vaccination, create public health acts and fund research
18th-19th CENTURY CAUSES OF DISEASE: Miasma
People ___ believed in Miasma ___ the late ___ century when ___ ___ and ___ ___’s findings were discovered. The Great ___ of ___ proved how ___ conditions were.
18th-19th CENTURY CAUSES OF DISEASE: Miasma
People still believed in Miasma until the late 19th century when Germ Theory and Jon Snow’s research were discovered. The Great Stink of 1858 proved how filthy conditions were.
Jon Snow studied the ___ of ___ in ___ Street and ___ it back to a ___ water ___. A ___ had ___ into the ___. He proved that the ___ water was causing ___ (yet did not ___ that it was ___ of ___), however many people ___ this and still chose to ___ in ___ until ___ ___’s Germ Theory.
Jon Snow studied the spread of cholera in Broad Street and traced it back to a contaminated water pump. A cesspit had leaked into the pipes. He proved that the dirty water was causing cholera (yet did not know that it was because of bacteria), however many people ignored this and still chose to believe in miasma until Louis Pasteur’s Germ Theory.
In ___, Edward Jenner took cowpox ___ from a ___ and ___ it into a small ___ of an ___ year old boy, ___ ___. He became ___ ill with ___ but then was ___ to ___, a far more ___ disease that killed ___ in ___ who got it. He called this vaccination after the ___ word for ___, ‘___’. It became ___ to give this to all newborn ___ in ___.
In 1796, Edward Jenner took cowpox pus from a milkmaid and smeared it into a small cut of an 8 year old boy, James Phipps. He became mildly ill with cowpox but then was immune to smallpox, a far more deadlier disease that killed 1 in 3 who got it. He called this vaccination after the Latin word for cow, ‘vacca’. It became compulsory to give this to all newborn babies in 1853.
Florence Nightingale witnessed ___ and ___ hospitals during the ___ war and decided to ___ patients due to their ___, allow ___ air to ___ and ___ patient’s ___ regularly. She reduced the hospital ___ rate there from ___% to ___%. With ___ from public ___, she set up a ___ school for nurses at St ___’ Hospital in ___ and, in ___, published a book called ___ for ___. She did not believe in ___ ___ and instead believed in ___, and she did not teach nurses about ___ as she believed it was ___ and ‘not a ___ place’.
Florence Nightingale witnessed dirty and overcrowded hospitals during the Crimean war and decided to separate patients due to their illness, allow clean air to circulate and wash patient’s bedding regularly. She reduced the hospital death rate there from 40% to 2%. With money from public donations, she set up a training school for nurses at St Thomas’ Hospital in London and, in 1859, published a book called Notes for Nursing. She did not believe in Germ Theory and instead believed in Miasma, and she did not teach nurses about germs as she believed it was unimportant and ‘not a woman’s place’.
Koch wanted to prove ___ Germ Theory, and so he injected ___ with ___ bacteria and found that the mice then got the ___ anthrax. He also came up with many ___ techniques such as ___, ___ and ___ ___ and, by ___, he identified ___ disease-causing ___.
Koch wanted to prove Pasteur’s Germ Theory, and so he injected mice with anthrax bacteria and found that the mice then got the disease anthrax. He also came up with many laboratory techniques such as stains, dyes and agar jelly and, by 1900, he identified 21 disease-causing germs.
Pasteur ___ that ___ went ___ due to ___ in the ___ and argued that this ___ bacteria can cause ___. He called this ___ ___. He went on to study ___ in ___ and found that, after falling ___, they had ___ to cholera, reinforcing ___ earlier findings with ___. However, Pasteur was the ___ to actually create ___ in a ___.
Pasteur hypothesised that milk went off due to bacteria in the air and argued that this same bacteria can cause disease. He called this Germ Theory. He went on to study cholera in chickens and found that, after falling ill, they had immunity to cholera, reinforcing Jenner’s earlier findings with cowpox. However, Pasteur was the first to actually create vaccines in a lab.
In ___, James Simpson found that ___ was an extremely ___ ___. This could replace ___, an ___ anaesthetic in which some people ___ up during surgery or some ___ woke up at all or other ___ like ___ and ___ which would ___ a patient if they ___. There was ___ opposition to ___ until ___ ___ used it ___.
In 1847, James Simpson found that chloroform was an extremely effective anaesthetic. This could replace ester, an unreliable anaesthetic in which some people woke up during surgery or some never woke up at all or other anaesthetics like mandrake and hemlock which would kill a patient if they overdosed. There was religious opposition to chloroform until Queen Victoria used it herself.
In ___, Joseph Lister ___ his findings that ___ ___ was a very useful ___ that could prevent the ___ rates of death by ___. Before this, the ___ of a surgeon’s ___ demonstrated his ___. The death rate ___ carbolic acid began being used went from ___ to ___. By ___, all ___ were ___ sterilised and, in the ___, surgeons began to wear sterilised ___, ___ and ___ and use better ___ such as ___. They took ___ to carry out ___ instead of ___ (as ___ surgeons did for ___), but this ___ in higher ___ ___ at first.
In 1867, Joseph Lister publicised his findings that carbolic acid was a very useful antiseptic that could prevent the high rates of death by infection. Before this, the dirtiness of a surgeon’s apron demonstrated his abilities. The death rate after carbolic acid began being used went from 46% to 15%. By 1887, all instruments were steam sterilised and, in the 1900s, surgeons began to wear sterilised gowns, masks and gloves and use better tools such as scalpels. They took time to carry out operations instead of rushing (as old surgeons did for recognition), but this resulted in higher blood loss at first.
Liston (not ___) amputated a ___ in ___ and a ___ minutes but ___ cut off the patient’s ___ alongside it.
Liston (not Lister) amputated a leg in two and a half minutes but accidentally cut off the patient’s testicles alongside it.
What did Britain do about Pasteur and Koch’s findings?
They translated and lectured their ideas, meaning they spread very quickly.
What were the problems with public health in the 19th century?
-> working conditions got worse due to the Industrial Revolution
-> population growth
-> many families were crammed together or shared rooms
-> outbreaks of epidemics, such as cholera, spread fast
Give 2 advantages and 1 disadvantage of the 1848 Public Health Act.
A national board of health was set up.
Councils were encouraged to collect taxes to pay for public health improvements and appoint medical officers to oversee this.
Local councils were not forced to follow these policies, and so it was ineffective.
Give 3 advantages of the 1875 Public Health Act.
Finally forced councils to carry out public health improvements.
Added the provision of clean water, proper drainage and sewage systems.
Appointed a Medical Officer of Health in every area.
Which Act allowed councils to clear slums and build better homes for working families?
The 1875 Artisans Dwellings Act
What type of laws were introduced in 1876?
Laws against the pollution of rivers
How many people died from cholera?
20,000
What was the ‘Black Period’ in the 19th century?
Time where surgeons used the discovery of chloroform to attempt more complex operations - this could have even increased the death rate due to loss of blood
In ___, Fleming left ___ containing ___ in his ___. Over ___, ___ had grown on it and, ___ the mould, there was ___ bacteria. However, he ___ experimented with this so ___ thought his discovery was very ___.
In 1928, Fleming left dishes containing bacteria in his lab. Over time, mould had grown on it and, around the mould, there was no bacteria. However, he barely experimented with this so nobody thought his discovery was very important.
In ___, Florey and Chain found Fleming’s ___. They saw the ___ of ___ and tried to get ___ from the ___, but they only gave ___. They then asked for ___ from ___, who gave them enough for ___ years worth of ___. They discovered that it worked on ___ but they needed ___ times more dosage for ___. They achieved this in ___, tested it on someone, and it ___. However, they ___ ___ of penicillin in ___ days and the man ___. Mass-production of penicillin ___ and, by ___, there were ___ million doses.
In 1938, Florey and Chain found Fleming’s article. They saw the potential of penicillin and tried to get funding from the government, but they only gave £25. They then asked for money from America, who gave them enough for 5 years worth of research. They discovered that it worked on mice but they needed 3000 times more dosage for humans. They achieved this in 1941, tested it on someone, and it worked. However, they ran out of penicillin in 5 days and the man died. Mass-production of penicillin began and, by 1944, there were 2.3 million doses.
In ___, Crick and Watson discovered the ___ of ___. ___ was the ___ person to ___ a technique to ___ ___. The ___ ___ ___ identified the ___ of each ___ in the ___ body between ___ and ___. This helped to ___ diseases caused by ___ (___ ___, ___ ___, etc.) rather than just using ___ ___ to identify diseases caused by ___.
In 1953, Crick and Watson discovered the structure of DNA. Franklin was the first person to develop a technique to photograph DNA. The Human Genome project identified the purpose of each gene in the human body between 1986 and 2001. This helped to identify diseases caused by genetics (cystic fibrosis, Down’s syndrome, etc.) rather than just using Germ Theory to identify diseases caused by bacteria.
What began to happen in the 20th century to do with lifestyle?
With the 20th century came reports about lifestyle choices and how living conditions impact health. For example, Rowntree in 1901 wrote about how 25% of York lived in poverty and the reasoning behind it.
When were electron microscopes invented?
1931
When were magic bullets created, who made them and what are they?
Created in 1909 by Ehrlich. They target specific bacteria such as pneumonia and scarlet fever.
The NHS came about in ___ after the ___ ___ recommended the need for a ___ ___ ___. ___ copies of this report were ___, and ___% of doctors ___ the NHS. There were very ___ waiting times at the ___ because over ___ people before this had never ___ a ___ before.
The NHS came about in 1948 after the Beveridge Report recommended the need for a National Health Service. 600,000 copies of this report were sold, and 92% of doctors joined the NHS. There were very long waiting times at the start because over 8 million people before this had never seen a doctor before.
What is the qualification that was required to be a surgeon in the 20th century and what did it show?
FRCS. It showed a more serious attitude towards the profession.
What did Röntgen discover, when did he discover it and why was it useful?
Discovered X-rays in 1895. This was useful in WW1 for identifying shrapnel wounds.
What did Marie Curie discover, and why was it useful?
Discovered radium and developed radiotherapy and chemotherapy which was used to diagnose and treat cancers.
What did Landsteiner discover and why was it useful?
Discovered blood groups and how the body rejected blood that was not of the same group. This helped create blood transfusions which were very useful for WW1.
What was added to stored blood to stop it clotting?
Sodium citrate
What did Barnard do, when did he do it and why was it useful?
He carried out the first successful heart transplant in 1967 and became a celebrity for this. This shows positive attitudes towards surgeons.
What was developed for polio victims?
Iron lungs
What did Gillies discover, and why was it useful?
He discovered plastic surgery and created skin grafts for deformed soldiers in WW1.
What percentage of cases of lung cancer were due to smoking?
90%
What was banned in the 20th century?
Smoking adverts
What was used to warn about the dangers of smoking in the 20th century?
Cigarettes were no longer advertised and were often kept in out of sight places in stores and campaigns to warn against the dangers of smoking.
When was the first battle of Ypres?
1914
What happened in WW1 in 1915 during the Ypres salient (battlefield)?
The British used tunnelling and mines to capture Hill 60, a man-made hill from the Germans.
What happened during the Second Battle of Ypres?
Chlorine gas was used for the first time by the Germans. This presented new injuries for soldiers.
What happened during the Third Battle of Ypres?
The ground was very waterlogged and many British men drowned in the mud. There were 245,000 British casualties.
What were the problems with the Battles of Ypres?
Very waterlogged conditions. The Germans had the high ground and could see the Allied movements.
When was the Battle of the Somme and what happened?
It was in 1916, and there was an extremely high death rate. 20,000 soldiers died on the very first day, and there were 400,000 Allied casualties overall.
When was the Battle of Arras and what happened?
It was in 1917. There were 160,000 British casualties. The terrain was chalky and a network of tunnels were dug below Arras with underground rooms containing running water and electricity. There was also an underground hospital with 700 beds.
When was the Battle of Cambrai and what happened?
It was in 1917. The Allies used 450 tanks to launch a surprise attack, but lost the land after they won it due to lack of infantry for these tanks. A blood bank was set up here.
In WW1, what did stretcher bearers carry and what were the issues with them?
They carried bandages and pain relief, such as morphine. However, there were only 16 stretcher bearers per 1000 men, and in muddy conditions it would take 6-8 bearers to carry just one stretcher. The injured had to wait hours or days to be rescued.
What was the evacuation route?
Stretcher bearers, RAP, field ambulances/dressing stations, CCS and then base hospitals.
In WW1, what was the RAP and what were the issues with them?
They were posts usually dug into the walls of the trenches where they would be met with a Batallion medical officer who would bandage minor wounds and send the soldiers back to fight or, with more severe injuries, send them to a dressing station. However, there was only 1 of these officers for every 1000 men and it was often under fire.
In WW1, what were field ambulances and dressing stations and what was the issue with them?
Field ambulances were mobile teams of doctors and, from 1915, nurses. They would transport soldiers to dressing stations around a mile from the front line. Severe cases would be sent to Casualty Clearing Stations (CCS). However, there were not enough ambulances to transport soldiers to CCS.
In WW1, what were Casualty Clearing Stations and what were the issues with them?
They were large tents around 10 miles from the front lines. They did operations and amputations and separated patients by a ‘triage’ system where patients were prioritised on how urgently they needed care. However, they could only deal with 1,000 patients at a time and so were easily overwhelmed.
In WW1, what were base hospitals and what were the issues with them?
They were civilian hospitals reached by train or ambulance. They handled very severe injuries and could take 2,500 patients at a time. Had things like laboratories, operating theatres and specialist centres for treating things like gas injuries. However, the journey was often slow and painful.
What 3 gases were used in WW1, when were they first used and what did soldiers do to prevent it?
Chlorine gas - 1915
Phosgene gas - 1915
Mustard gas - 1917
Soldiers urinated on handkerchiefs and held them to their nose.
What was gangrene and how was it caused?
Decomposition of the body due to lack of blood supply, caused by bacteria from the soil getting into wounds.
What caused trench fever?
Lice
What were the symptoms of trench fever?
High temperature, headaches and muscle pains
What was the impact of trench fever?
15% of men were out of action for days or even weeks
What was done to prevent trench fever?
Delousing stations, louse repellent gel or soldiers would just pick the lice off of them themselves
What caused trench foot?
The waterlogged trenches and constantly wet feet
What were the symptoms of trench foot?
Numb and swollen feet with a lack of blood supply
What was the impact of trench foot?
Could lead to gangrene and some cases were hospitalised
How did they try to prevent trench foot?
Whale oil on feet, foot inspections and getting a higher supply of socks
What was the cause of shell shock?
Psychological reaction to horror
What were the symptoms of shell shock?
Shaking, paralysis and staring
How many cases were recorded of shell shock?
80,000
What were treatments of shellshock like at the start and end of the war?
At the start, soldiers were shamed, disciplined or even endured electric shock. At the end, soldiers received psychiatric care and a period of rest.
Why could aseptic surgery not be done on WW1 soldiers?
Soldiers got infected again too quickly after being treated due to mud and their clothes
What was debridement?
The cutting off of infected tissue as quickly as possible
What was the Carrel-Dakin method?
Where a sterilised salt solution was put into a wound through a tube
How many men had lost limbs in WW1 by 1918?
240,000
What impact did the Thomas Splint have?
It reduced the death rate from 80% to 20%.
What did Cushing create for brain surgery in WW1?
A surgical magnet to remove metal fragments from the soldiers’ brains
What was FANY and RAMC?
FANY - founded in 1907, volunteer nurses who helped the wounded and drove ambulances
RAMC - organised and provided medical care; included doctors, ambulance drivers and even stretcher bearers
