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A&P II chapter 22 &18 > lymphatic and endocrine system > Flashcards

lymphatic and endocrine system Flashcards

1
Q

this system is composed of a network of vessels that penetrate nearly every tissue of the body and a collection of tissue/organs that produce immune cells

A

the lymphatic system

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2
Q

name 3 functions of the lymphatic system

A
  1. fluid recovery
  2. immunity
  3. lipid absorption
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3
Q

over the coarse of one day how much fluid is not reabsorbed by the blood capillaries?

A

2 to 4 liters

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4
Q

what system is responsible for returning the 2 to 4 liters of plasma protein to the blood from the tissues?

A

the lymphatic system

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5
Q

if the lymph nodes are affected on one side of the body ( unilaterally) than the infection is either local or systemic

A

local

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6
Q

if the lymph nodes are affected on both sides of the body (bilateral) than the infections is either local or systemic

A

systemic

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7
Q

How does the lymphatic nodes or organs detect a foreign antigen?

A

when the fluid passes through the nodes/organs they pick up foreign cells and chemicals and it activates a protective immune response.

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8
Q

what are the lymph vessels called in the small intestines?

A

lacteals

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9
Q

what does a lacteal do?

A

it absorbs dietary lipids that are not absorbed by the blood capillaries.

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10
Q

what are the main components of the lymphatic system?

A
  1. lymph
  2. lymphatic vessels
  3. lymphatic tissues
  4. lymphatic organs
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11
Q

what is the responsibility of the lymphatic vessels?

A

to transport lymph

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12
Q

what is the lymphatic tissue composed of ?

A

it is composed of aggregates of lymphocytes and macrophages

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13
Q

what is the clear colorless fluid called that is low in protein and taken up by the lymphatic vessels?

A

lymph fluid

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14
Q

where does the lymphatic fluid originate from

A

tissue fluid

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15
Q

what does the lymph fluid contain when it is leaving a lymph node

A

lymphocytes

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16
Q

what does the lymph fluid look like when it is draining after a fatty meal is consumed?

A

it has a milky appearance related to its high lipid content

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17
Q

what things can be found inside the lymph fluid besides lymphocytes and lipids?

A

macrophages, hormones, cellular debris, bacteria, viruses and cancer cells.

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18
Q

follow the route of tissue fluid back to the blood

A 
lymphatic capillaries
collecting vessels
six lymphatic trunks
two collecting ducts
subclavian veins
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19
Q

lymphatic capillaries are present in nearly all tissues of the body except where?

A

CNS, cartilage, cornea, bone and bone marrow

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20
Q

lymphatic capillaries are closely associated with lymphatic capillaries except for one thing which is ?

A

they are closed at one end

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21
Q

true or false lymphatic capillaries have overlapping edges that act like valve-like flaps that can open or close?

A

true

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22
Q

in which direction does the flap like structures of the lymphatic capillaries move when the tissue fluid in higher than the lymph tissue

A

the flaps move inward and fluid flows into the capillary

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23
Q

in what direction does the flap like structures move when the lymphatic pressure is higher that the tissue fluid

A

the flaps move outward and closed to keep the fluid in the lymphatic capillary

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24
Q

what does a lymphatic capillary consist of?

A

endothelial cells that loosely overlap

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25
Q

the collecting vessels travel along what types of vessels?

A

veins and arteries

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26
Q

at what intervals does the collecting vessels empty into the lymph nodes?

A

irregular intervals

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27
Q

when the lymph vessels empty into lymph nodes what happens to the bacteria

A

it is phagocytized and immune cells monitor the fluid for foreign antigens

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28
Q

after the collecting vessels where does the lymph fluid travel?

A

it converges to form larger lymphatic trunks

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29
Q

name the six lymphatic trunks

A 
jugular
subclavian
bronchomediastinal
intercostals
intestinal
lumbar trunks
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30
Q

how many lymphatic ducts do we have and name them

A

two the right lymphatic duct and the thoracic duct

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31
Q

what areas are included in the right lymphatic duct

A

the right jugular, subclavian and bronchomediastinal trunks in the right thoracic cavity

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32
Q

where does it receive lymphatic drainage

A

from the right arm, right side of the thorax and the head

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33
Q

where does the lymphatic drainage from the right lymphatic ducts empty

A

into the right subclavian vein

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34
Q

where is the thoracic duct found

A

it is found on the left side.

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35
Q

where does it receive lymphatic drainage

A

from the body below the diaphragm and the left upper limb, left side of the head, neck and thorax

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36
Q

what is the name of the prominent sac that is formed by the joining of the lumbar trunks and the intestinal trunks

A

the cisterna chyli

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37
Q

the cisterna chili gets it name from&raquo_space;>f

A

the large amount of fat that it collects after a meal

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38
Q

where does the thoracic duct empty into

A

the left subclavian vein

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39
Q

true or false

the lymph flows under a force similar to that of veins but it flows at a higher pressure and speed than venous blood

A

false

lymph vessels have no pump like the heart and it flows at a lower pressure/speed than venous blood

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40
Q

what is the function of the valves of the lymphatic vessels

A

they prevent the fluid from flowing backwards

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41
Q

true or false

do the skeletal muscles play a part in lymphatic flow

A

yes

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42
Q

besides skeletal muscles what else contributes to the flow of lymph

A

arteries are often wrapped with a lymph vessel and may pulsate and rhythmically squeeze the lymphatic vessels

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43
Q

how does the thoracic muscles assist in lymph flow

A

as one inhales it promotes flow

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44
Q

name the six types of lymphatic cells

A
  1. B lymphocytes
  2. T Lymphocytes
  3. Macrophages
  4. Natural killer (NK) cells
  5. dendritic cells
  6. Reticular cells
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45
Q

which lymphocyte is named after the bursa of Fabricius? which is an organ in a chicken

A

B lymphocytes

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46
Q

which lymphatic cells produce the antibodies of the immune system

A

the B lymphocytes

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47
Q

which lymphocyte mature in the thymus gland

A

T lymphocytes

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48
Q

which type of lymphatic cell is a large phagocytic cell that develops from monocytes that have emigrated from the blood

A

macrophages

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49
Q

which type of macrophages alerts the immune system to the presence of foreign antigens?

A

the ( APCs) antigen presenting cells

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50
Q

which type of lymphocyte attacks/destroys bacteria, infected host cells from viruses or cancer and transplanted tissues?

A

the natural killer cells

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51
Q

which lymphatic cells are responsible for a means of defense called the Immune surveillance?

A

the natural killer cells

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52
Q

what are the branched, mobile antigen presenting cells (APC) found in the epidermis, mucous membranes and lymphatic organs

A

the dendrite cells

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53
Q

what are the branched APC found in the skin

A

Langerhan’s cells

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54
Q

how does the dendritic cells play a role in alerting the immune system

A

they take up foreign antigen by receptor mediated endocytosis

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55
Q

what are the branched stationary cells that contribute to the stroma of the lymphatic organs and act as APC’s in the thymus

A

the reticular cells

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56
Q

what are the aggregations of lymphocytes in the connective tissues of the mucus membranes and various organs

A

the lymphatic tissue

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57
Q

what is the simplest form of lymphatic tissue called?

A

the diffuse lymphatic tissue

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58
Q

where is the diffuse lymphatic tissue found?

A

in body passages that are open to the exterior of the body like the respiratory tract, the digestive tract and the reproductive tract

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59
Q

what is the diffuse lymphatic tissue called that is present in the respiratory, digestive and respiratory tract and what does it stand for?

A

MALT- mucosa associated Lymphatic tissue

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60
Q

what is the name of the diffuse lymphatic tissue that is present in the digestive tract and what does it stand for?

A

GALT- gut associated lymphatic tissue

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61
Q

what is the name of the diffuse lympatic tissue that is found in the respiratory tract and what does it stand for?

A

BALT- bronchus associated lymphatic tissue

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62
Q

name the two primary lymphatic organs

A

the red bone marrow and the thymus

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63
Q

name the three secondary lymphatic organs

A

the lymph nodes, tonsils and spleen

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64
Q

why is the red bone marrow and thymus called the primary organs?

A

because they are the sites where B and T lymphocytes become immunocompetent.

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65
Q

what is the job of the secondary lymphatic organs?

A

they are populated with the immunocompetent lymphocytes after they have matured in the primary lymphatic organs.

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66
Q

what does immunocompetent mean?

A

this means that the lymphocyte is able to recognize and respond to antigens.

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67
Q

what portion of a childs skeleton is occupied by the red bone marrow?

A

nearly the entire skeleton

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68
Q

what portion of the adult skeleton is occupied by the red bone marrow?

A

it is limited to the axial skeleton(sternum, iliac crest) and the proximal heads of the humerus and femur

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69
Q

what is the soft, loosely organized, highly vascular material separate from the osseous tissue by the endosteum of the bone?

A

the red bone marrow

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70
Q

how does the red bone marrow gets it’s color?

A

from the abundance of RBC’s

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71
Q

what drains into the central longitudinal vein that exits the bone and are lined by endothelial cells

A

the sinusoids

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72
Q

what type of cells stimulate factors that induce the formation of leukocytes?

A

the reticular cells

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73
Q

what happens to the aging reticular cells in the long bones?

A

they accumulate fat and transform into adipose cells, replacing the red bone marrow with yellow bone marrow

74
Q

what is the function of the red bone marrow?

A

to produce blood (hemopoiesis) and to aid

immunity

75
Q

what area of the lymphatic and endocrine system houses developing lymphocytes and produces hormones that regulate their activity

A

the thymus

76
Q

where is the thymus located?

A

between the sternum and the aortic arch in the superior mediastinum

77
Q

what does the fibrous capsule of the thymus do

A

it gives of trabeculae that divides the gland into several angular lobules.

78
Q

what is contained within each lobule of the thymus?

A

a dark staining cortex and a lighter medulla that is populated by T lymphocytes

79
Q

what is the function of the reticular epithelial cells of the thymus?

A

they form a blood thymus barrier (BTB) by sealing off the cortex from the medulla and surrounds the blood vessels and lymphocyte clusters in the cortex.
and they produce signaling molecules that promote the development and function of T cells.

80
Q

what does the BTB blood thymus barrier do?

A

it isolates developing lymphocytes from blood borne antigens

81
Q

what are the signaling molecules the promote the development and function of T cells

A

thymosin, thymopoietin, thymulin, interleukins and interferon

82
Q

what are the most numerous lymphatic organs in the body

A

the lymph nodes

83
Q

what is contained in the subcapsular sinus of the lymph nodes

A

macrophages, dendritic cells and reticular fibers

84
Q

what is the cortex

A

it is the outer covering that encircles about 4/5 of the organs.

85
Q

what is the medulla

A

it is the inner area that consists of branching network of medullary cords. it extends to the surface at the hilum

86
Q

what is the hilum

A

an indentation

87
Q

afferent vessels enter or exit the lymph nodes?

A

they enter the lymph nodes through these vessels and into the subcapsular sinus

88
Q

after leaving the subcapsular sinus of the cortex and the medulla the fluid flows through which type of vessel?

A

the efferent lymphatic vessel which emerges from the hilum

89
Q

true or false … lymph nodes are the only organs that filter lymph as it flows?

A

true, the other lymphatic organs do not have afferent and efferent vessels.

90
Q

what is the purpose of the lymph nodes

A

to allow time for cleansing of the lymph flid of foreign antigens. it removes about 99% of the impurities before the lymph leaves the lymph node.

91
Q

most lymphocytes deep in the cortex of the lymph nodes are what type of lymph cell

A

T cells

92
Q

what area are the lymph nodes concentrated in

A

the cervical, axillary, thoracic, abdominal, intestinal/mesenteric, inguinal and popliteal.

93
Q

what is the condition called when a lymph node becomes swollen and painful

A

lymphadenitis

94
Q

what is the collective term for all lymph node diseases

A

lymphadenopathy

95
Q

what are the functions of the lymph nodes

A

cleansing the lymph fluid and to provide a site for B and T cell activation

96
Q

where are the tonsils located

A

the entrance of the pharynx in 3 sets. the pharyngeal tonsils, the palatine tonsils and the lingual tonsils.

97
Q

what is the name of the one tonsil located on the wall of the pharynx just behind the nasal cavity

A

the pharyngeal tonsil

98
Q

what is the name of the pair of tonsils located at the posterior margin of the oral cavity and the largest and most often to be infected

A

the palatine tonsils

99
Q

what is the name of the tonsil located on each side of the root of the tongue

A

the lingual tonsils

100
Q

what is the name of the largest lymphatic organ located in the posterior abdominal cavity, just inferior to the diaphragm and posterio-lateral to the stomach

A

the spleen

101
Q

the spleen parenchyma has two types of tissue what are they called?

A

the red pulp and the white pulp

102
Q

what does the red pulp consist of ?

A

sinusoids filled with lymphocytes ( T AND B CELLS)

103
Q

what does the white pulp consist of

A

it consists of lymphocytes and macrophages along small branches of the splenic artery

104
Q

what is the functions of the spleen?

A

it produces blood cells in the fetus, the white pulp monitors the blood for foreign antigens, the sinuses of the red pulp accumulate old RBC;s where they rupture and are phagocytized by the macrophages and it stabilizes blood volume by transferring excess plasma from the blood into the lymphatic system

105
Q

the bodys defense against infectious disease agents is known as the

A

the immune system

106
Q

the immune system has two defenses known as

A

the innate defenses and the adaptive defenses

107
Q

which type of body defense system responds to infection and trauma regardless of the type of infectious disease or trauma?

A

the innate defense, it includes a first and second line of defense which could be due to a bacteria, virus, burn, cut ect

108
Q

what is the body defense system that involves the responses of the immune system as a third line of defense, namely the lymphocytes and antigen presenting cells

A

the adaptive defenses

109
Q

what job does the B lymphocytes have in the adaptive defense system

A

to produce antibody that is specialized to fight infections outside the cell

110
Q

what job does the T lymphocytes have in the adaptive defense system

A

they are designed to fight intracellular infections, viruses and cancer cells

111
Q

what is the job of the antigen presenting cells of the adaptive defense system

A

to meet and great the antigen and to worn the other cells that they are present

112
Q

name the 5 anatomical barriers and their secretions as the bodies first line of defense

A 
skin
mucous membranes and mucous
lacrimal apparatus and tears
urinary tract and urine
vagina and vaginal secretions
113
Q

name the 3 areas of the first line of defense

A

anatomical barriers and their secretions
chemical (anti-microbial) factors
normal microbiota

114
Q

name the 6 chemical factors

A 
saliva
sebum
perspiration
lysozyme
gastric acid
transferrins
115
Q

how does saliva help with our immune systems first line of defense

A

it dilutes the number of microbes and washes them from the surface of the teeth and the mucous membranes of the mouth

116
Q

how does sebum help with our immune system first line of defense

A

it acts as a protective film over our skin, it has a low Ph and thereby prevents microbial growth and some microbes metabolize the sebum which leads to an inflammatory response and acne

117
Q

how does perspiration help with our immune systems first line of defense

A

it is produced by our sweat glands and it flushes our microbes

118
Q

how does lysozyme help with our immune systems first line of defense

A

it is found in body fluids like tears and saliva, it has antimicrobial activity that can destroy peptidoglycan and is active against gram positive bacteria

119
Q

how does gastric acid help with our immune systems first line of defense

A

it has a low Ph, it creates a hostile environment for most microbes.

120
Q

how does transferrins help with our immune systems first line of defense

A

these iron binding proteins reduce the amount of iron available to microbes and as a result the microbes cant grow

121
Q

what is the process of normal microbiota preventing the growth of pathogens called

A

microbial antagonism

122
Q

how do normal microbiota protect as part of the immune systems first line of defense

A

it competes with pathogens for nutrients and produces harmful substances and creates an environment that is not suitable for the pathogen.

123
Q

what is the 4 areas of the second line of defense

A

phagocytosis
inflammation
fever
antimicrobial substances

124
Q

name the two types of leukocytes that fight infection and eliminate microbes through phagocytosis

A

granulocytes ie( neutrophils, basophils, eosinophils) and agranulocytes ( monocytes, lymphocytes

125
Q

which granulocyte is the most abundant, has 3 to 5 lobes, appear in the acute phase of infection, are highly phagocytic and are primarily for bacteria

A

neutrophils

126
Q

which granulocyte has a large U or S shaped nucleus, secretes histamine, secretes heparin and promotes mobility of other leukocytes by preventing clotting

A

basophils

127
Q

which granulocyte has 2 lobes connected by a thin strand and is phagocytic against parasites

A

eosinophils

128
Q

which agranulocyte has a large ovoid, kidney shaped or horseshoe shaped nucleus

A

monocyte

129
Q

which agranulocyte circulates freely in the blood, not phagocytic and present antigens to activate other cells of the immune system

A

monocyte

130
Q

when a monocyte leaves the blood and enters the tissue space it matures into what type of cell

A

a macrophage

131
Q

what is the name for a macrophage that is found in specific tissues like the liver (kupfer cells) the lungs (alveolar macrophages) spleen, lymph nodes

A

fixed macrophages

132
Q

what is the name of the macrophage that moved from the blood and is highly phagocytic

A

wandering macrophages

133
Q

what is the name of the agranulocyte that is round to ovoid and is of a uniform dark violet color

A

lymphocytes

134
Q

what are the two lymphocytes and their functions

A

B cells- produce antibodies of which their are 5 classes and T cells- their are 4 subsets of T cells

135
Q

name the four main stages of phagocytosis

A

chemotaxis, adherence, ingestion and digestion

136
Q

which stage of phagocytosis involves chemical attraction to the site of infection by either damaged tissue cells, products from microbial cells and components of the complement system C5a

A

chemotaxis

137
Q

name the stage of phagocytosis that involves the attachment of the plasma membrane, and if they are opsonized

A

adherence

138
Q

if a microorganism is coated with antibody or components of complement C3b this is known as

A

opsonized

139
Q

this stage of phagocytosis involves using projections called pseudopods that surrounds the microbe, fuses and brings it into the cell within an enclosed vesicle called a phagosome

A

ingestion

140
Q

what is the stage of phagocytosis that the phagosome fuses with the lysosome to form a phagolysome, releases its digestive enzyme which kills the microbe and forms a residual body which contains any indigestible material and discharges its contents from the cell through the cell membrane

A

digestion

141
Q

as a secondary line of defense this response is activated when there is local damage to body tissue

A

inflammation

142
Q

damage to the body that causes inflammation could result from several factors like..

A

microbial infection
physical agents like cuts, heat and electricity
chemical agents like acids and bases

143
Q

what are the four signs of inflammation

A

redness, swelling, pain and heat

144
Q

what is inflammations role in the secondary line of defense

A

to destroy and remove the agent that has caused the damage, attempt to wall off the agent if it cant be destroyed and to repair damaged tissue.

145
Q

what are the 3 stages of inflammation

A
  1. vasodilation and increased vascular permeability
  2. phagocytes migration and phagocytosis
  3. tissue repair
146
Q

name some of the acute phase proteins that are released when cells have been damaged

A 
histamine 
kinins
prostaglandins
leukotrienes
cytokines
complement
147
Q

what is vasodilation

A

the increase in the diameter of the blood vessel which increases blood flow, which results in redness at the site of inflammation

148
Q

what is increased vascular permeability

A

this is when the walls of the vessels permits substances to pass through blood vessels walls and into the tissue spaces causing swelling (edema)

149
Q

what causes pain during the stages of inflammation

A

the edema presses on adjacent nerve endings and bacterial toxins are released as well as the sensitizing effects of prostaglandins and kinins

150
Q

how does delivery of clotting factor to the injured areas assist in the inflammation process

A

the clot prevents the microbe or its toxins from spreading

151
Q

what potent inflammatory chemical is released from the mast cell

A

histamine

152
Q

what is the process of margination or pavementing and when does it appear

A

about an hour after inflammation has started, blood slows and phagocytes appear. they stick to the walls of the inner lining of the blood vessel.

153
Q

after margination the phagocytes move out into the tissue space known as

A

diapedesis or emigration

154
Q

what forms after the phagocytes have completed their function and die

A

pus

155
Q

during the third stage of inflammation this involves the replacement of dead or damaged cells in the injured tissue

A

tissue repair

156
Q

what is a systemic response that increase the bodies temperature as part of the secondary line of defense

A

fever

157
Q

what chemical is released from the hypothalamus in the brain that raises the body’s temperature

A

prostaglandins

158
Q

what chemical does leukocytes release in response to a microbial infection

A

pyrogens - namely interleukin-1

159
Q

what is the name of the system that consists of a group of over 30 serum proteins that participate in our defenses

A

the complement system

160
Q

there are two pathways that the complement system follows name them

A

the classical pathway and the alternative pathway

161
Q

how is the classical pathway activated

A

it is activated by antibody (Ab) and antigen (Ag)

162
Q

how is the alternative pathway activated

A

it is activated by the interaction of microbial polysaccharides with proteins of the alternative pathway, namely factors B,D and P

163
Q

what is the consequences of activation

A

this results in cleavage of protein C3 into C3a and C3b. these fragments have new physiological activity and initiate 3 processes that are destructive to microbes

164
Q

name the 3 processes that are destructive to microbes as a consequence of activation

A
  1. cytolysis
  2. inflammation
  3. opsonization
165
Q

what is the main function of the complement system

A

cytolysis- cell killing

166
Q

what is the MAC- membrane attack complex and what does it do

A

the MAC is when C3b initiates the assembly of proteins C5-C9 which forms a transmembrane channel in the membrane of the microbe resulting in loss of ions and lysis

167
Q

what does C3 split into

A

C3a and C3b

168
Q

how does proteins C3a and C5a help with the inflammation process

A

they bind to the mast cells, basophils and platelets causing them to release histamine, resulting in increased vascular permeability- thereby contributing to inflammation

169
Q

what is C5a responsibility during the inflammation process

A

it is a chemotactic factor that brings in the WBC’s that comes in and helps defend.

170
Q

what is the “tagging” process called and how does it work in killing microbes

A

opsonization is the tagging process. the complement component C3b attaches itself to the surface of the microbe ( similar to that of antibodies) and serves as an opsonin. it enhances the attachment and ingestion by the phagocytes.

171
Q

what is the name of the antiviral proteins produced by animal cells in response to a viral infection

A

interferons

172
Q

interferons are host specific. what does that mean

A

this means that if the interferon is produced by humans it will only protect humans and vice versa.

173
Q

interferons are not virus specific, what does that mean

A

they are active against a number of different viruses.

174
Q

what is the 3 types of human interferons

A

alpha, beta and gamma interferons

175
Q

what are the 3 important aspects of the adaptive immune response (IR)

A

it is specific- recognizes and is directed against specific substances
it is systemic- the IR is not restricted to the initial local site of infection
it has a memory- after the initial exposure the adaptive IR recognizes and attacks even stronger if encountered again.

176
Q

what is an antigen

A

it is a substance that can mobilize the adaptive defenses and illicit an IR

177
Q

these are large complex molecules (natural or synthetic) that are not normally present in the body and is considered nonself by our immune system

A

antigens

178
Q

what is an antigenic determinant

A

this is part of the antigen that is capable of eliciting an IR or is immunogenic

179
Q

what are the three major types of cells acting as APC’s

A

the dendritic cells, macrophages ad B cells

180
Q

there are 3 delivery mechanisms that ensure that immune cells encounter invading antigens what are they

A

passive delivery, T cell recirculation and migration of dendritic cells to the secondary lymph organs

A&P II chapter 22 &18 (1 decks)

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