Lungs Cardio Flashcards

Question

What can be some causes of endothelial dysfunction?

Answer 1

>LDL Lipoprotein Smoking Immune complex Heamodynamic changes Infection Genetic changes

Answer 2

It mean the wall of the blood vessels or airway become more permaible which mean become more leaky

Answer 3

50-75 is clinical >75 is severe

Answer 4

Age Sex male Heritability Non modified

Answer 5

st line: Dyslipidaemia, hyperfibrinogenaemia, • smoking, • hypertension, • diabetes. Second line obesitus, hypodinamia hyperhomocysteinaemia, inflamation,•hyperuricaemia, menopause, • oral contraceptics, • stress.

Answer 6

Medicin used for vasodilator incase of stable angina or chest pain

Answer 7

Location: should be central and kinda wide spread not only in the tip of finger Spread: often the pain spread to the left side more like left arams and forearms rarely right side Duriation: angina pain last 0.5 - 5 minutes rarely 10-15 min. Longer than 20min and if nitroglycerin is not working than acute MI is suspected What triggers it: more its cold weather, smoking , physical activity What makes it more ease: like factors for example nitroglycerin

Answer 8

1 during physical activity 2 walking or climing stairs 3 walking 100-500m or just climbing one floor 4 walking up to100m

Answer 9

ECG Echocardiography CT Holster mon: which is a device registering your heart electrical activity ECG for 24-48h

Answer 10

If the changes is 50-75% Usualy at rest you will not see changes at ECG At great number we will see ST depression or T inversion

Answer 11

If the angelic pain appear ST depression more than 1mm at 0.06-0.08 after the J point which is at the end of the ST segment Or if sT elevation is 1 or more than 1mm

Answer 12

• Stop physical activity Nitroglycerin tablets or sublingual spray are the most effective treatment for angina pain usually 1 does

Answer 13

Unstable angina pectoral MI non ST eleveatio MI with ST elevation

Answer 14

Pain last more than 20min. New at least class II Very progressive more frequent longer lasting Angina prectoris developed after MI * Memory tip. Any worsening angina symptoms already can be unstable angina pectoralice that can lead to MI need medical intention to prevent acute MI

Answer 15

Rest ECG : ST segment depression T wave inversion LBBB troponin, keratin kinase test Exercise tests after stabilization Angiography

Answer 16

Anticoagulants (warfarin, heparin) : slow the blood clotting process Antiplatelet agents like ( aspirin clopedogrel ) : prevent blood cells like blood platelets from sticking together Antiischemic agents: BAB ( beta andro receptor blocker), nitrates, CCB calcium chain blocker Lipid-lowering therapy

Answer 17

Coronary artery spasm Embolism Dissection Hypotension or shock Bradyarrhythmi Respiratory failure Anemia Tachyarrhythmia Significant hypertension * Other causes Heart failure Myocarditis Cardiomyopathy Cardiac contusio

Answer 18

* Increase cardiac troponin ) values by at least one value greater than the 99th percentile 14ng\l * troponin elevation with normal ECG can be acute MI with normal ECG * ECG: ST segment elevation MI and thrombosis completely block the vessel ST not elevated also mean MI but thrombosis didn’t block the vessel completely * Persistent ST elevation mean left and Roget bondle branch block LBBB RBBB Always changes on ECG * Elevation of cardiac markers TROPONIN CREATINE KAINASE CK-MB * ST segment elevation: ≥0.2 mV MEN ≥0.15 mv WOMEN * ST depression and T wave changes: ≥0.05 mV * T wave inversion ≥0.1 mV

Answer 19

severe, long-lasting (> 30 min.) anginal pain, felt behind the sternum, almost not relieved by nitroglycerin Nausea Cold sweeting Fear of death Dizziness In case of patients with diabetes for example they can have AMI without chest pain or angina pectoralis

Answer 20

the third sound, which occurs in AMI systolic murmur is caused by mitral regurgitation,

Answer 21

ST dislocation: - injury Pathological Q wave – necrosis T wave changes - ischemia In LBBB RBBB block there is always ST elevation But ST elevation can be duo to ischemia or LBBB block so you can’t know that . ECG is blinded for ischemic changes assessment! and QRS direction will be down incase of LBBB block which is opposite to the normal.

Answer 22

Widen Q wave: ≥0.03sec Widen R wave: ≥0.04sec

Answer 23

Anterior: V1-V6 Posterior: V7-V9 Inferior : II III avF (Augmented Vector Foot) Right ventricular: V3R- V4R Lateral I avL If you suspect ST depression in v1 v2 v3 you should do posterior leads as well like v7-v9

Answer 24

We would look at where is the elevation like what lead of the heart is either elevation or depression For example If we have ST elevation and its on II III and aVF then it mean we have on the inferior border of the heart (Inferior = II III avF)

Answer 25

Arrhythmias: (ventricular extrasystoles, ventricular paroxysmal tachycardia, ventricular fibrillation, atrial fibrillation.) II-III degree atrioventricular block. Intraventricular conduction disorders. USUALLY when there is 1st 2d and AVF change is brady arrhythmia Acute pulmonary edema. Cardiogenic shock. Left ventricular remodeling. Cardiac aneurysm. Cardiac rupture. Strokes. Venous thromboses. Autoimmune pericarditis f inferior AMI infarction we will have low heart problem AV block and so on… If anterior part of the heart problem then we will face pump function problems like cardiogenic shock edema of lungs ..

Answer 26

O2 (4-8 L/min.) if O2s <90% Nitroglycerin for vessel dilator Aspirine and Clopidogrel as anticoagulants Anticoagulants like heparin Morphine for the unstable angina because if you have pain and stress it will increase O2 demand Beta blocker: for to reduce the heart rate and lower blood pressure which will reduce the heart oxygen demand, and a bit stronger contraction Atropine: this we give incase of inferior MI like the inferior side of the heart then AV block and we will have severe bradycardia in that case we need to give atropine.

Answer 27

We have occlusion of the coronary artery and dying muscle of the heart, we need to restore it back and the time is if the discomfort is less than 12 hours ST elevation and LBBB Incase of developing ischemia if we have it on ECG and clinical evidence then reperfusion is considered more then 12 hours.

Answer 28

In widget one box is 5 mm and on small box is 1mm- it tell us about the speed of it one big box speed is 0.2seconds and one small box speed is 0.04 seconds HIGHT: one big box tell us about amplitude in Milivolt 1 big box is 0.5mv one small box is 0.1 mv. Which is electricity that is produce by the sa node to the heart.

Answer 29

P = 0.12 seconds 2.5 small boxes PR= 0.2 seconds = 3-5 small boxes QRS= < 0.10 seconds = 1.5- 2.5 small boxes QT = 0.43 = 10.75 small boxes seconds 430ms male and female 460ms female

Answer 30

Are normal P waves present? Is there a P wave before every QRS complex and a QRS complex after every P wave? Are the P wavesand QRS complexes regular? Is the PR interval constant?

Answer 31

Form R to R then 300 devoid by that number 300 by 5mm for the big boxes For small boxes 1500 divided by tha number of boxes which is 25 in normal ECG If the cardiac rate is irregular then count the R waves under 10 seconds and multiply it by 6

Answer 32

Atrial enlargement dou to pulmonary stenosis Small Q in V1 V4 V5 v6 AVL is normal The R wave should become bigger and bigger in size until v4-v6

Answer 33

St elevation or dep should be compare to TP segment Start at J point finish at T J point is where we measure the St segment

Answer 34

T wave is repolarization of ventricle About 0.5 mv Negative in AVR occasionally in III Avf but not both at the same time Depressed t wave ischemia Elevated hyperkalemia

Answer 35

P waves upright in leads I and II (II > I), inverted in aVR • PR interval > 0.12 s

Answer 36

P wave have a mall dip or break instead of smooth II III avF And in V1 lead the p is more depressed than the normal p wave which is usually biphasic (bit positive followed by negative part) And it’s more >0.04 seconds Duration is >0.12 s

Answer 37

In general we look at p wave in case of atrial enlargement. Amplitude is larger than > 0.25 in II II Avf ( Normal <0.25mv ) In V1 upward part of P greater than downward

Answer 38

We look to the increase of R wave in V5 V6 if it elevates more than = >2.7mv Or R (V5 V6) + S (V1) = >3.5mv Additional changes in ST and sometimes T wave inverted in left ventricle Hypertrophy QRS increase but less than < 0.12 seconds

Answer 39

lead V1, the R unusually tall > 0.7mv V5 V6 S wave is >0.7mv Vi and v2 should be elevedted right not depressed? And can we say both right and left ventricles are enlarged dou to the R wave? In this case?

Answer 40

ECG grids or paper Rhythm, rate Electrical axises Intervals (PQ, QRS, QT) P wave (duration, amplitude) QRS ST segment and T wave

Answer 41

P wave upright I and II (II > I), inverted in aVR Duration of p wave is < 0.12 (3 small boxes) Amplitude 0.25mv (2.5 small boxes) on limb leads (0.15mv) on V1-V6 Normal PR interval range is between p >0.012s 3- 5 small boxes ( 0.12 - 0.20 ) Higher than 0.20 is pathological in this it would be first degree heart block.

Answer 42

Always 3 or more rule**** It’s a backup heart beat when the SA node fail or blocked and the AV node steps in and start to supply its is slow heart beat AV node or junctions escape rhythm - 40-60 b/m then the usual the QRS is narrow And inverted P wave. If the AV node can not take over then the ventricle take over and the beat is 20-40 b/m WIDE QRS

Answer 43

Always narrow QRS Lead 2 You can have it before QRS p <0.12s and inverted Lead 2. Normal rhythm but p wave Hidden by QRS straight or flate line in case of P wave You can have it after QRS the p wave in AVR

Answer 44

It’s an extra heartbeat, between 2 pp or RR intervals It’s compensatory and non-compensatory Full Compensatory when the distance between 2 pp are doubled Non-compensatory when the distance is less than double. NOTE= think of it as a drummer missing a beat and you hit one drum early then pausing it to get tack to the rhythm. Supraventricle premature beats= Narrow QRS P wave is almost hidden. One premature beast between 2 RR wave will indicate supraventricle Beats. Ventricle premature beat = wide, “bizarre” QRST complex (QRS > 0.12 s) No normal P wave before the And no normal ST segment and T wave changes in the abnormal wave it can be T inverted. Unifocal and multifocal are if the abnormal QRS wave is the same abnormal or 2 different and many different abnormal waves. In premature beats. NOTE=. Since the t wave is inverted and ST depressing we should not be looking for ischemaia in the abnormal wave but the normal beat that’s where we should be looking for ischemia.

Answer 45

It’s another type of catogarization based on the abnormal premature wave. If its after each normal beat then its bigeminy If its every third than its trigeminy Quadrigeminy — every fourth beat is a PB Groupped: Couplet — two consecutive PBs, Triplet — three consecutive PBs If its wide that mean its ventricle because supra ventricle is narrow QRS

Answer 46

Sinus it’s tachycardia on ECG everything is there but just tachycardia duo to physical stress Supraventricle tachycardia is narrow QRS and almost no p wave dou to electricle activity above AV node Ventricle tachycardia is wide QRS no p wave at all no RS wave visible. From pace maker in ventricle.

Answer 47

On supraventricular premature its narrow QRS On ventricular pre mature beats its wide QRS

Answer 48

The problem is not with SA node its in or around the AV node.

Answer 49

Alright The beast are regular heart rhythm Narrow QRS <0.12 P wave is inverted or maybe not seen St segment is maybe depressed and T wave inverted. Dou to secondary ischemia.

Answer 50

Wide QRS complexes (> 0.12 s) with discordant ST segment and T wave changes Absence of normal p wave before ventricular complexes Rhythm usually regular (slight irregularity possible)

Answer 51

Arrhythmia chaotic reentry of electrical impulse. hemodynamic instability, risk of cardiac failure, embolic events (including stroke) Very irregular rhythm not stable at all between two RR No visible p wave. Can have Normal QRS complex but absolut arrhythmia It can be normal systolic ventricular rate 60-100 bpm) Tachysystolic (ventricular rate above 100 bpm) Bradysystolic (ventricular rate below 60 bpm)

Answer 52

Atria is depolarizing regularly! Absent P wave or F wave look alike Many p waves after each other. Abnormal cardiac rhythm or regular but the difference is that in arterial fibrillation its absent p wave here we have flatter p wave or F wave Regular atrial rhythm but its above 250 bpm and less than 300mbp Narrow QRS RR interval can be regular or irregular

Answer 53

Chaotic electrical activity with no ventricular depolarization or contraction P wave - absent QRS - absent T waves - absent Irregular waves of varying amplitude and shape Rate of the waves 250-500 bpm Clinical = DEATH Looks like small sutures Big sutures look like ventricle tachycardia

Answer 54

AV block is basically delay or interruption of impulses from atria to ventricle duo to anatomical or functional problem. And it can be permanent or temporary 1st degree 2 degree and 3 degree

Answer 55

In first degree the AV node is delayed that will lead to delay PR interval or prolonged PR >0.20 s Normal QRS

Answer 56

Secondary AV block is you have AV block form time to time In case AV is block so we will have P wave with no QRS complex maybe one time or 2 duo to AV block

Answer 57

Progressive delay of AV node Prolonged PR interval At least on P wave in ECG is not followed by QRS complex or QRS complex is missing. After the paus we will have short PR interval. The PP dose t change

Answer 58

Missing the beat in the middle QRS No prolonged PR interval RR interval remain constant PP interval is constant RR is constant until it dopes

Answer 59

It’s the highest typ of second degree so logically we should have near the whole heart beat block so here we can still have QRS complex followed by many p waves after. Several P waves in a row without QRS complexes PP interval is constant To compare it to complete heatblock there’s still some RELATION BETWEEN P wave and QRS complex.

Answer 60

It’s a very high degree on AV which means we not gonna have so much contraction QRS but many p p p p and this p interval is constant There is still relationship with QRS complex we go a have 1 2 or three complexes

Answer 61

No atrial activity is conducted to the ventricles, so atria and ventricles are controlled by independent pacemakers P-P intervals constant R-R intervals constant (longer than P-P intervals) No connection between P waves and QRS complexes (complete AV dissociation) Bradycardia (HR < 60 bpm)

Answer 62

QRS is widen in both cases right and left But we look at lead V1 and V2 the QRS complex is positive more like an M shape and V5 V6 the QRS is widen. And inversion of T wave.

Answer 63

Widen QRS in V1 and V2 it’s QRs is very dominant and depressed There’s is notch or break on the QRS at least in 2 of the leads V1 V2 V5 V6 lead 1 and AVL And R wave is prolonged in V5 and V6 more than 0.6mv And T wave is pretty fucked.

Answer 64

Reciprocal changes are opposite electrical changes seen in ECG leads that look at the heart from different angles.

Answer 65

The conditions are ST elevation at the J point. Should be in 2 leads at least ST elevation. In lead V2 and V3 ≥0.2 mV (2 mm) in men 40+ ≥0.25 mV (2.5 mm) in men 0-40 ≥0.15 mV (1.5 mm) in women ≥0.1 mV (1 mm) in all the other leads

Answer 66

Basically normal look normal In acute phase we will see more like a flag highly elevated ST elevation form J point if you compare to Q wave Hours later still have ST elevation but its not as hight as in acute and we will see pathological Q WAVE R WAVE DECRSED Days will still have ST elevation not less than as it was in bourse and 1-2 days but here we gonna see a T wave very Depressed Q pathological After that weeks we will still have pathological Q wave ALWAYS but T will be normal which mean it will be positive but still less

Answer 67

Characteristics of the pain. Systemic inflammation ( fever, temperature CRB leukocytes) History of disease Duration of pain Location Symptoms

Answer 68

Chronic or recurrent abdominal pain that lasts for months or years is characteristic of structural (organic) diseases: Side effects of medication  Ulcer disease  Chronic pancreatitis  Inflammatory bowel disease  Diseases of the gallbladder and ducts  Tumours of the digestive tract Alarm symptoms are if we have these symptoms we need to act fast Fever Extremely severe pain, especially at night Weightloss Progressive dysphagia Vomiting Diarrhoea(or a positive stool test for (secret) bleeding)

Answer 69

pain or discomfort in the upper abdomen, including an early feeling of satiety after a meal, nausea,bloating and indigestion Weight loss Anemia GI bleeding And cancer that has comeback recurrent tumour 2 types are Burning in the upper abdomen Uncomfortable fullness after a meal

Answer 70

Impaired gastric function Stomach acid. Inflammation of the gastric mucosa Duodenitis. Up to 10 percent of patients Bile reflux

Answer 71

10% are exposed to dyspepsia Long term usage of NSAIDS lead to ulceration hemorrhages around 70% of patients using NSAIDs

Answer 72

The patient should at least have on or more of the symptoms Persistent (obsessive) feeling of fullness after meals Early feeling of satiety Epigastric pain or burning Symptoms are severe enough to interfere with normal activities and have been present for at least 3 days per week for the past 3 months, and have started at least 6 months ago No evidence of structural disease (FEGDS) that could explain the symptoms

Answer 73

When stomach content enter the esophagus duo to too frequent and too long relaxation of the lower esophageal spihincter. Factors that can provoke it are fatty food medication laying down after eating Pathologically = It also occur when the balance between anti reflux and refluxive factors are disturbed.

Answer 74

The normal anti reflux barrier like sphincter and its normal position and normal function of diaphagram pedicles Esophageal protective function= esphageal peristalsis which is esophageal muscle that act involuntary in wave motion to push the acid back into the stocmach’ Esphageal muscosal secretion which have bicarbonate to resolve the acid Good blood flow to repair its self after the damage Regeneration of the esophageal lining is quick to heal any injury Salivary secretion Have bicarbonate to to naturalise acid

Answer 75

Overfull stomach Pressure duo or pregnancy, obesity Diaphragm hernia Pathology sphincter Increase esophageal acidity Impaired saliva secretion Bile and pancrease reflux Esophageal PH>4

Answer 76

Hematomosis or vomit bleeding Melena which is shit with blood black dark colour Acute and chronic anemia syndrome Classifications are Upper digestive. Esophageal stomach and duodenum Middle small intestine And lower large intestine

Answer 77

In upper GI bleeding we will see melena and vomit blood In lower we will see more like weakness, tachycardia, flickering in the eyes, dizziness, shortness of breath) during acute bleeding: signs of hypovolemia (BP↓, tachycardia, shock) chronic bleeding: signs of iron deficiency anemia.

Answer 78

The light red or red color mean we have GI bleeding in the colon which is the large intestine Can be inflammatory bowl Infection Tumor in the rectum or colon COLOrectal cancer Up to 500ml wont effect the physiological changes of the body. If the amount of blood is lost duo to GI bleeding is 1 litre or 1000ml we will have 20bmp more if its 2 litre 2000ml we will have clinical shock.\

Answer 79

Pale face, pallor of the extremities and temperature changes Acceleration of the pulse rate (pay attention if patients use drugs that affect heart rhythm) More frequent respiratory rate A lower blood pressure in the supine position, and when changing position from lying to sitting Signs of fluid loss (dry tongue, reduced skin elasticity) Reduced urine output Liver diseases (jaundice, etc.)

Answer 80

Hb and hematocrit which is measure of percentage of blood volume Ht g.b. are unchanged, there is often moderate mild increase leukocytosis Urea in the blood is increase but not creatinine HB and Ht level drops after 8h of bleeding

Answer 81

Lasts 2-3 weeks Normal 3day less 3 times a week is pathological too Water or food-borne viral/bacterial infection  Environmental and food contamination (heavy metals, bacteria) Antibiotic-induced diarrhea Diarrhea caused by cancer drugs, radiation, other medication

Answer 82

intestinal infections  inflammatory bowel diseases (ulcerative colitis, Crohn's disease,food allergies, etc.)  malabsorption syndrome (fat and carbohydrate malabsorption is a common cause of chronic diarrhea, causing bloating, pain,weight loss)  Watery diarrhea (e.g. fructose, glucose-galactose, magnesium intolerance)  Large bowel oncology

Answer 83

Malabsorption means the failure of the GI tract, usually the small intestine, to absorbe one or more substances from the diet. diarrhea, bloating, flatulence, cramping and weight loss. Maldigestion! Pancreatic exocrine insufficiency Small bowel bacterial overgrowth Inadequate luminal bile acid concentration

Answer 84

4.5-8.0 If its 5-6 its still normal duo to diet. Less than 4.5 acidic = starvation metabolic acidosis meat consumption, diarrhea dehydration More than 8.0 is alkaline = vegetarianism diet that’s rich in citrus fruit, pyloric obstruction respiratory alkalosis

Answer 85

1.015–1.025 (1.030)

Answer 86

Temporary (functional) Exercise Prolonged standing (orthostatic) Fever Renal palpation Long-term (organic) Glomerular glomerular filter pathology→GN tubular reabsorption→PN/IN Overflow - Presence of low mass protein in multiple myeloma Tissue- urinary tract inflammation or malignancy

Answer 87

Diabetic ketoacidosis Starvation Alcohol intoxication. Pregnancy toxemi

Answer 88

Adults: More than 4–5 RBCs per high-power field (hpf) is abnormal. Children: More than 1–2 RBCs per hpf is abnormal. Microhematuria (<0.2 ml/L) Macrohematuria (>0.2 ml/L) Leukocyturia Females:>4 WBCs/hpf1 Males: >2 WBCs/hpf1

Answer 89

Up to 1 hyaline cast/hpf1 is normal They are made of mucoprotein (a sticky protein) that clumps together in the nephrons. When the tubular fluid flows, these clumps are washed out into the urine, where they can be seen under a microscope. Casts are a key indicator of kidney disease. They help distinguish between: Primary renal disease (problems in the kidneys themselves). Diseases of the lower urinary tract (e.g., bladder or urethra).

Answer 90

Potassium: 3.5–5.0 mmol/L Sodium: 135–148 mmol/L Creatinine: Female 23–97 µmol/L, Male 27–115 µmol/L Urea 2.5–8.3 mmol/L Anemia indicators in CBC (↓HGB, ↓ HCT, ↓ RBC, ↓ MCV, ↓ MCH)

Answer 91

GFR: Best overall measure of kidney function. Concentrating ability: Reflects tubular function. The kidneys' ability to concentrate urine by reabsorbing water. Renal clearance: Evaluates how well the kidneys remove waste.

Answer 92

We have nephritic which is inflammation location is more like soft tissue periorbital area or face morning more visible and its hard in general compare to low extremities edema Nephrotic edema is usually in legs waist face more visible in the evening and are SOft in general

Answer 93

Renal edema : nephritic type Glomerular hematuria Systemic hypertension specially diasystolic Mild proteinuria And oliguria small amounts of urine. Post infectious

Answer 94

Heavy (nephrotic) proteinuria >3.5 g/24 h Hypoproteinemia <60 g/L & Hypoalbuminemia <35 g/L Nephrotic edema. Legs, waist, face

Answer 95

Minimal change disease (80% of pediatric cases) 2. Focal segmental glomerulosclerosis (most common cause inadults) 3. Membranous glomerulonephritis 4. Membranoproliferative glomerulonephritis 5. Rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis Secondary Diabetic nephropathy 2. Sarcoidosis 3. Autoimmune 4. Infection: Syphilis, hepatitis B, HIV 5. Amyloidosis 6. Multiple myeloma 7. Vasculitis 8. Cancer 9. Drugs: gold salts, penicillin, captopril, NSAIDs, corticosteroids

Answer 96

Increased susceptibility to infection: Thromboembolism: Hyperlipidemia:

Answer 97

Hypovolaemia Drugs Renal artery stenosis Hepatorenal syndrome Sepsis

Answer 98

Glomerular disease Multiple myeloma Intrarenal crystal deposition Cholesterol emboli Acute tubular necrosis/injury Interstitial nephritis

Answer 99

Renal stones Ureteric or bladder transitional cell carcinoma Intra-abdominal or pelvic malignancy Bladder outflow obstructio Papillary necrosis

Answer 100

Glomerulonephritis: Arterial Hypertension: Pyelonephritis: Congenital disease (PKD) Systemic diseases of connective tissue (SLE) Metabolic diseases (DM, gout)

Answer 101

Anorexia, nausea and vomiting Breathlessness 6. Peripheral edema Poor concentration

Answer 102

Lasts for years Frequently treatment-resistant Involves HMOD Hypertension-mediated organ damage 1. Renal parenchymal hypertension 2. Renovascular hypertension

Answer 103

Male 4.5-5.9 Milion per L Male 4.1-5.1 mL Increase: dehydration hypoxia renal disease Decrease hyper hydration anemia

Answer 104

82–98 fL: Normal-sized RBCs (normocytic). Low Iron deficiency anemia. Chronic bleeding. Cancer, tuberculosis. Pregnancy and lactation (increased iron demand). High Megaloblastic anemia (vitamin B12 or folate deficiency). Liver diseases. Use of cytostatic drugs. Alcohol abuse. Vegetarianism (risk of B12 deficiency).

Answer 105

Normal: 27,6–33,3 pg

Answer 106

320–360 g/L: Normal hemoglobin concentration in RBCs.

Answer 107

• Normal: female 123–153 g/L, 140–175 g/L

Answer 108

Normal: 35–47%, 40–50%

Answer 109

(normal range: 4–10 x 109/L)

Answer 110

(normal range 150–350 x 109/L)

Answer 111

6.6-30.4 µmol/L, male 8.8-32.4 µmol/L)

Answer 112

fatigue, dyspnoea, light-headness, palpitation, headache, tinnitus, anorexia, angina

Answer 113

Low MCV (microcytic anemia) Normal MCV (normocytic anemia) High MCV (macrocytic anemia) Hemolytic anemias

Answer 114

Iron deficiency: Not enough iron to make hemoglobin (the protein that carries oxygen). Thalassemia: A genetic condition affecting hemoglobin production. Chronic diseases: Long-term illnesses that affect iron use.

Answer 115

Hemolytic Anemias are a group of disorders where red blood cells (RBCs) are destroyed faster than they are produced. >120 days Normocytic or, if there are many young (hence larger) RBCs and reticulocytes - macrocyti

Answer 116

MCV MCH MCHC Ferritin which is a protein that stores iron in the body all low

Answer 117

A heterogeneous group of rare anemias characterized by ineffective erythropoiesis, leading to: ↑ferriti ↑iron absorption.

Answer 118

alcohol abuse, B 12/B9 deficiency reticulocytosis.