LU 3 - Integrated Public Relations Programmes Flashcards
Define strategic communication.
Van Gemert & Woudstra (200519) defines strategic communication as:
“Strategic organisational communication is the process in which members and units of an organisation act and manage meaning within a changing (long term) context of policy, structure and culture strongly influenced by the (perceived) environment”.
Public relations programme models used differ from organisation to organisation or from programme to programme. The idea is to find the programme that fits the purpose at hand.
Define strategic Management.
in order to understand the reasoning for developing comprehensive and integrated public relations programme, it is Important to remember one key factor. The public relations
goals of the organisation needs to meet the overall organisational goal.
Halloram (2014) defines strategic management as:
. A way of persuading other people to accept your ideas, policies, or courses of action;
Means persuading allies and friends to stand with ou
. it means persuading neutrals to come over to our side (or at least stay neutral);
. And in the best of all worlds, it means persuading adversaries that you do have the power and the will to prevail.
Identify various PR programs
There are a number of planning frameworks/models that exist for the planning of public relations programmes. A public relations programme is implemented over a long period of time
- The traditional Public relations programme model
- The communication by objectives model
- Steyn and Puth’s Model
There are many other frameworks that a practitioner may use. For a more integrated approach, that encompasses many forms of communication one would look at the TOCOM model
Explain the traditional public relations model.
• The traditional Public relations programme model
1 Defining the situation; 2 Setting the objectives; 3 Determining the target audience; 4 Developing the message; 5 Activities; 6 Budget; 7 Review and evaluation
Explain the communication by objectives model.
This framework was developed by Fourie (1982) which consists of 21 steps which are combined to form four stages. This framework refers to target stakeholders as the destination and to the communicator as the initiator of the communication achon.
Planning stage Step 1: Identify the communication needs of the communicator and destination; Step 2: Formulate the message; Step 3: Formulate the objectives; Step 4: Determine the profitability; Step 5: Gather the communication elements; Step 6: Analyse the destination; Step 7: Analyse the communicator; Step 8: Determine the circumstances; Step 9: Time the communication; Step 10: Determine the approach; Step 11: Choose the format; Step 12: Determine the tempo; Step 13: Structure the communication; Step 14: Select the codes; Step 15: Select the media;
Encoding stage
Step 16: Encode the communication;
i Step 17: Test the communication
Delivery Stage
Step 18:Deliver the communication;
Feedback stage
Step 19: Arrange for feedback; Step 20: Evaluate effectiveness; Step 21: Stop or repeat.
Explain Steyn and Puths model.
Steyn and Puth provide a working model for developing a communication plan that should be aligned to the overall communication and organisational strategy.
Research
Problem or opportunity statement
Situation analysis
Planning
Communication goals (overall, long term)
Communication objectives (short term, specific)
Management liaison
Adaption phase
Specific target groups
Statement of limitations
Message
Central message derived from goals
Message for each target group
Theme or slogan
Implementation strategy and activities
Implementation strategy (what needs to be communicated)
Activities (how messages will be communicated)
Central action or special event
Media for each activity
Scheduling
Which day, week or month?
Budget
Cost for each activity
Evaluation Research
Process/impact research
ln-process/internal/external evaluation research
Formative/ summative evaluation research
Selling the plan to top management
Explain The TOCOM model -An integrated approach
The TOCOM model or the Twente Organisational Communication model, aims to provide the public relations practitioner with a frame of reference for designing strategic communication programmes. This model will assist the PRP to analyse communication both inside as well as outside of the organisation.
Identify and explain the 9 characteristics of the TOCOM Model.
Characteristics of the TOCOM Model
- It is a communication model it takes into account all organisational variables.
- The TOCOM model is applicable to the organisation as a whole as well as to its various parts. (internal as well as external communication). Van Gemert & Woudstra (2005:13) point out that looking at the model as a (set of) subsystem(s) and at the same time as a whole system implicates the introduction of the concept of system wholeness and system hierarchy. The way systems are connected to each other can also be described as system networks.
Organisational members like organisations (or units of organisations) can be seen as representatives of a (SUb) system; they are part of one or more networks, - Van Gemert (2005:13) aiso explains that the TOCOM, “with its interdependencies of organisational units and its strong relation to the environment, is clearly a systems theory model. However, while systems theory originally emphasised the external environment as the environment of the corporate organisation, the TOCOM model definition of environment is more complex. Each unit, even each individual has its own external environment.
This TOCOM perspective is compatible with Cutlip, Center and Broom (1994) and Broom, Casey and Ritchey (2000). They emphasised the mutually dependent (stakeholder) relationship in the organisation as well as outside the organisation that must be monitored continuously”
- TOCOM is an open system model. There are three consequences: Van Gemert & Woudstra (20052115) identifies these three consequences: Firstly, the boundaries of the organisation allow information to pass in two directions (as represented by the interruptions in the lines of the organisational border). Secondly, the continued existence of the organisation depends on this exchange of information. And finally, the incoming and outgoing information is modified along the way (input, throughput, and output). In contrast with most literature on open system models TOCOM does describe the (re)construction of the environment. in other words, it does not restrict itself to the adaptation of an organisation to its environment. Talking about systems is also talking about boundaries of systems with a question like, whether the environment of a corporate organisation is part of the system or not.
- Due to the nature of an organisation’s contacts with its environment, it gives rise to different kinds of networks. Van Gemert & Woudstra point out that these contacts (other organisations, etc.) also have their own goals, cultures, structures, etc. Therefore a separate TOCOM model can be filled out for almost each contact in the environment of organisations, their units and individual members. An organisation’s contacts with its environment can be described in terms of strength, or in terms of the type of organisations. If an organisation depends on certain contacts for its success or its survival, these contacts can be defined as stakeholders. The changing strength of interaction with the environment is represented in the model by the irregular line.
We agree with Taylor (2000). He assumes that an organisation is formed through interaction: organisation is conversation. His ideas are also applicable to networks of corporate organisations. Such a network can be seen as a new organisation with its own conversation rules. The network concept is strongly connected to organisational boundaries and therefore to the system concept. The question is here: where are the boundaries of an organisation. It is an interesting and relevant question from a theoretical perspective as well from a consultancy and research perspective’. - There are relationships between all the components of the model. Van Gemert & Woudstra explains that “Design changes in one of the components means a change in the construction of the other components either directly or in the long run. Particularly the components of the triangle and the environment cause construction or design changes. This is expressed in the model by directly relating them to each other. The communication and organisational components are mainly based on theories of organisational communication and organisation theories as published by for instance Minzberg (1985).”
- The model contains a framework for designing strategic organisational communication. This is done by means of filling in, or changing or the model with the “reality” of the organisation and its environment. Van Gemert & Woudstra explains that TOCOM is “TOCOM is a descriptive model, however using the filled in components of the model in contingency situations, some prescriptive value can be added.
For instance Mintzberg (1983) tried to predict the relation between organisational structure and the communicational structure even in relation to culture aspects. Generally speaking, however, organisations differ from each other so much that, even though it is possible to some extent to classify some types, it is difficult to set a standard for communication. See, for example, Goldhaber (1993), on contingency theory which states that not all organisations are alike and therefore problems and solutions differ.
With contingency is meant that organisational characteristics (or the components in TOCOM) are interdependent and different for each organisation.To become an effective organisation there should be a good fit between the components and the environment, What counts is that, by means of this model, the consultant /designer is provided with a framework in which to work. With this contingency restriction in mind, some strong empirical evidence about relations between TOCOM aspects can be found in the work of Quinn a.o. on the Competing Values Model(1993) and the work of Burton&Obel (1998).” - Although managing communication is almost a mission impossible, communication is considered a management tool. Van Gemert &Woudstra indicates that this implies that “communication can, to a certain extent, be directed and controlled. A prerequisite for good management is the prior definition of basic policy principles that can serve as points of reference; in this case, it requires a vision of communication derived from the organisation’s vision (its mission statement).
This is expressed in the model by its vision of communication and communication goals, at the top. The notion of management, however, needs some further clarification. As indicated before not all communication can be managed. Besides, it is paramount that one should not try to manage all communication because it would kill all creativity and diminish the member’s attitude for taking responsibility. One should realise that, even when there is a minimum of communication management, members will create their own communication structure just to get the things done, which they think are important for themselves and the organisation. This idea that patrons of interaction are established anyway is described in the so-called complexity theory. This theory is consistent with the ideas of Taylor about organisations as a form of conversation and discourse (Taylor 1996, 2000).” - Van Gemert & Woudstra (2005115) also point out that: The model is less suitable to convince organisations that a consultant should be hired. All complex models have a negative impact on clients because they give the impression that a lot of research ought to be done before some results are available. The complexity of the model is in the eyes of the client equivalent to spending too much money. If one wants to use the model in the process of briefing we recommend the consultancy version.”
Explain The Central Part of TOCOM
Van Gemert & Woudstra point out that “the components, or problem areas, of the central part of the model are the visible parts.
You can observe them. Of course a consultant has to know how to look. He has to keep in mind that he is looking at the top of the iceberg.
Culture and climate characteristics and part of the emotion component, can only be made visible by research”. Van Gemert & Woudstra explain that “the components, or problem areas, of the central part of the model are the visible parts. You can observe them. When making use of a consultancy, they need to know where and how to look. Culture and climate characteristics and part of the emotion components, can only be identified and made visible through research.
The central part consists of visible components of communication.
The components are: > Self-representation (identity, image and reputation); > Mix of communication means (the communication mix): corporate media; > Message; > Symbolism; > Behaviour (and skills) > Organisational members; > Emotion.
Van Gemert & Woudstra point out that “at the core of the model we find the members with their group and individual characteristics, as the base for the level of analysis.
People are an important asset of an organisation. People are the organisation. They use and are subjected to the communication mix, including technology. messages, symbolism and behaviour and skills.
Emotion is present in all communication and in many cases responsible for the communication climate and the wellor illbeing of members.
The whole of the visible communication is the selfrepresentation of the organisation, an organisational unit or an individual member.
The interpretation of this self-representation by the environment (other TOCOMs!) contributes to the image and reputation of the organisation. This image can reflect the identity of the organisation. We have chosen to describe the concepts image, reputation and corporate branding in relation to identity and therefore not in the environment section. However, a particular image is a crucial concept for understanding the relation between organisations.
The central part of the TOCOM model: Self representation
Van Gemert & Woudstra explain that ‘the strongly interwoven components of the central part of the model reflect the identity of the organisation (unit or individual member) and they also form the basis for judging the organisation its image and reputation. We call this reflection the self-representation of an organisation (or organisational unit, or individual).
Identity may be seen as the personality of the organisation or department. An organisation’s personality. however, can only be partially understood in terms of the core of the TOCOM model. That is, personality is only partially reflected in the various ways in which communication is expressed by an organisation. Such expressions may be viewed as the tip of the iceberg: the important attitude part lies underneath and is located in the climate/culture components”.
The central part of the model: Corporate Communication Media Mix
Van Gemert & Woudstra point out that “within as well as between organisations, several means (the communication mix) are used to provide both internal and external target groups with the desired information. A distinction may be made between oral, written and digital means and communication systems (e.g., the ’chain’ of documents and oral discussion to facilitate decision structures: communication chain management). Leaving budget questions aside, the choice of means, known as the communication mix, is on the one hand determined by the communication goals, and, on the other hand, by the other components of the model.”
There are different perspectives when one analyses the messages. Van Gemert & Woudstra identifies four key concepts.
~ “Firstly, whether its function is to inform, to instruct, to persuade or motivate people;
~ Secondly, whether its function is to tell, to share, to explain, to sell or to involve;
~ Thirdy, whether it comprises policy information, task information, management information or motivational information, or, in the categorisation by Goldhaber whether it is a task message, a maintenance message, a human message or an innovation-related message;
~ Fourthly, whether it has an organisational memory or knowledge function.
The message functions are of course, strongly connected to the kind of organisation people want to live in, or less idealistic, the management wants to create. For example, to give innovative messages a change, you need an innovative organisation. Looking at the functions in this way, you are able to relate them to the concepts of vision, structure and culture .”
The central part of the model: Symbols
According to Van Gemert & Woudstra, “ by symbols we mean all information carriers (including emotion again) that an organisation uses to express its identity and which as such contribute to the image of the organisation, but which cannot simply be classified as a form of document or consultation.
Examples of such symbols are a characteristic office building, an attractive reception area, offices decorated with works of art, a company laptop, a good canteen with pleasant service, a company uniform, the company letterhead, clear routing in the building, parking spaces for visitors, ingenious websites, striking job advertisements, and a logo* which reflects (or not) the identity of the organisation. See for an overview described by Miller the glossary under symbols. Corporate visual identity design can contribute to an organisation’s performances by stimulating identification and image building”.
4.2.4 The central part of the model: Behaviour (and skills)
Van Gemert & Woudstra explains that “behaviour is the way in which the members of an organisation act. This is reflected, among other things, in the style of management, in the way certain parts of the organisation work together, in contacts with the press and customers, in contacts with government departments, and in how day-to-day work proceeds. Behaviour can be analysed on various levels: the organisation as a whole; parts of the organisation; the individual member of the organisation.
In addition, an analysis can be made of top management, niddle management, floor workers or any other functional groups. One could for example look at leadership styles, the assimilation process of new team members, of the co-operation among departments, among members of project teams, among ndividual employees and between employees and clients”.
the central part of the model: Member(s) of the organisation as level of analysis
It is important to decide who are actually in the centre of the model, as they are the level of analysis. The PRP needs to understand the segmentation between members of the organisation, or only members of a specific department, or if it is middle management as an entity.
Van Gemert & Woudstra categorise members of an organisation in for instance corporate~level managers (the CEO and board of directors), business level managers (managers of a division and their staff), functional level managers (for instance the marketing or human resource manager), and ‘lower-levei’ employees.
Van Gemert & Woudstra also points out that “in this categorisation the first three have a task in developing and implementing organisational strategy. However, we already mentioned that also lower-level employees are able to develop and implement strategy just by interacting with each other. Moreover, the term ’lower level’ in strategic management literature is somewhat misleading. The main reason for using the term is to simplify things; ’lower level’ could encompass all employees at any level in the organisation with the exception of management”.
The central part of the model: Emotions, the Ring of Fire
in the TOCOM model special attention is paid to the role of emotion because emotion is the most important potential barrier to change.
Van Gemert & Woudstra reiterates that we are “nevertheless unsure whether emotion should have a different position in the model compared to, for example, symbols. For pragmatic consultancy reasons we position emotion as visualised in the model to emphasise its importance. We call it the ring of tire because emotion is everywhere visible in the core of the model and of course not visible, but nevertheless there, in the culture/climate field. We also call it the ring of fire because of the resemblance with a ring of volcano’s where relatively small outbursts underwater can cause considerable problems.”
Van Gemert & Woudstra pointed out that emotions refer to the feelings experienced towards an object, person, or event that create a state of readiness. We experience emotions through our thoughts, behaviour, and psychological reactions.”
Emotions -and their bodily expressions are socially learned; they are constructed. And of course, making sense of emotions is also socially constructed. Each emotion has an object. It can be a person or a general feeling of injustice or grieve. There are rules for emotions and the experience of emotions. Rules learned from the past, from interaction, from knowing yourself. Depending on the situation emotions can be framed differently.
For example, do you frame your emotion as fear of losing somebody or as heavily in love?
Van Gemert & Woudstra identifies four kinds of rules that govern emotion can be distinguished:
. Rules of appraisal: what is the object and is it negative or positive?
. Rules of behaviour: how do you cope with your emotion, are you showing it in public, to which colleagues, or are you hiding it?
- Rules of prognosis: how long will it take, are there phases?
- Rules of attribution: how are you explaining your emotion? Justifylng, denying your part, how do you tell others?
- There are no emotion-free zones in organisations and their environments
Explain The Inner and Outer Triangle
The inner and outer triangle is broken down in greater data“ below
> The inner and outer triangle: goals and missions
Van Gemert & Woudstra explained that “if the corporate organisation has formulated its goals and values for instance in the form of a mission statement, and may be even has formulated a corporate communication vision, then of course it is logical that all organisational units should have goals and values that are in line with the corporate (communication) policy. Depending on the function of a unit, there can be, or even should be, some differentiation.
However, if there is a severe contradiction then something should be done. Individual members also do have their own goals and a vision on how to communicate. Usually a member is in trouble when his goals are no longer compatible with those of others. The mission is determined as a result of the positioning process in the environment”.
> The inner and outer triangle: Structures and processes
The communication structure shows the lines of communication. The concepts of ‘consultative structure’, ‘communication flows’ and ‘formal’ versus ’lnformal‘ communication are generally used to categorise the communication structure.
Managing an organisation without communication is impossible. Managing is taking strategic and operational decisions, is sending and retrieving information, talking about issues, taking care of people, listening to people and managing is coordinating. To do so, one needs structures and information to feed these structures. These structures and processes can be formal and in that case they ‘follow’ organisational structures (as described in an organigram) and business processes.
> The inner and outer circle: Culture and climate
ln Van Gemert & Woudstra Culture and climate is continuing changing. As a result of communication people (organisations, units, and members) negotiate sense-making. This is not only sense-making about referential aspects of the message but also about rules for behaviour, about emotions, about values and norms.
The difference between culture and climate is only temporal, climate aspects can become culture aspects. As in the other elements of the model we can make a distinction between the corporate culture/ climate and those of the units and other teams. These subculture/ climates should be compatible.
Compatibility is also a minimal condition for the functioning of individual members. Important questions are what their values and norms are, compared to those of others?
Explain the environment of TOCOM
4.4 The Environment
Van Gemert & Woudstra (2005:37) explains that “not only the corporate organisation has a certain environment with strategic implications for image and reputation on the one hand and the (inter)dependence of information from a network of other organisations and society on the other.
Organisational units small or large, business units or project teams are in the same position.
Their environment consists of a network of other organisational units, together constituting the corporate organisation. They, like the corporate organisation, have to consider their own and others reputation to get their work done and they also have to consider their dependency on information.
To make things more complicated, organisational units have their own specialised networks with organisations outside the corporate organisation too. In these cases they represent not only their own unit but also the corporate organisation. And, in the perception of outsiders, it is almost always the corporate’s reputation that is at stake here.
What is applicable for the organisation is also applicable for the organisational member. They are part of different (inter)organisational networks. Their success is also dependent upon their image and reputation as an individual and as a representative boundary spannerof their organisation and organisational unit”.
Out line how to construct a TOCOM Strategy
There is no exact template on how to go about putting your TOCOM strategy to paper. Different organisations, industries and even individuals may have different views on how it should be done.
Below is just a guideline on areas that the TOCOM model plan could address:
. Organisational/ programme background;
. Corporate profile: mission and vision included; .
•Description of the corporate culture;
. Description of the external environment
0 Description of the internal environment;
0 Key strategic issues;
0 Goals and objectives;
‘ Description of the stakeholders;
‘ . Stakeholders needs analysis
• Communication tolls used and needed; ‘ Budget
• Evaluation of the strategy;
• Other things may be included like important Sponsorships, CSI Projects etc.
