Ls2 Flashcards
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Plasma membrane
Outer surface of every cell, more or less same structure in every cell
Phospholipid bilayer with proteins and other molecules imbedded
Oily fluid in which proteins and lipids are in constant motion
Immunization
Series of shots
MMR- immunization shot against meals, mumps, rubella
Small quantity of pathogens to build immune response, memory cells to speed up recovery next time
B lymphocytes
Transform into plasma cells and release antibodies into the circulation, which are proteins that tag the pathogens to signal the immune cells to destroy it
Form memory cells- every pathogen has specific surface receptors (signature), they can remember for next time how to fight the infection
Parts of the respiratory system
Nasal/oral cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, primary/secondary/tertiary bronchus, bronchioles (if you don’t need a lot of oxygen bronchioles are slightly constricted), alveoli (site of exchange)
All made of cartilage up to the trachea
trophoblast
- In mammals, the first extraembryonic membrane to form is the trophoblast.
- When the blastocyst hatches from the zona pellucida, the trophoblast cells attach to the uterine wall, This is the beginning of implantation.
- The trophoblast becomes part of the uterine wall, and sends out villi to increase surface area and contact with maternal blood.
Capillaries
Smallest diameter blood vessels
Made of endothelial layer only (tunica intima)
Have slits- Slits facilitate movement and exhange of materials between cells
They are the site of exchange with cells
Lowest velocity, delivering nutrients at slow speed
placenta
organ of exchange of nutrients and waste products between the embryo’s and the mother’s blood
Antenna systems
Pigments arranged in these
Also called light harvesting complexes
Glycoproteins
Carbohydrate and protein
Control of breathing
Voluntary until it becomes physiologically dangerous, your brain will force you to breathe.
• Inspiration is initiated by stimulating the respiratory muscles
– Diaphragm and external intercostals
• The stimulation is initiated in the medullary centers and the pons
Medulla oblongata sends signal to spinal cord, phrenic nerve sends action potential to diaphragm. 100% controlled by brain unless you voluntarily change it, stimulation always occurring. Neurons called central patter generator, send action potentials then they stop, perfectly synced on/off mechanism
Glyoxisomes
Structurally similar organelles found in plants that convert lipids to carbs (fats to sugars)
Chemoreceptors
Homeostatic mechanism: Chemoreceptors constantly measuring level of oxygen and co2, send signal through sensory nerve fibers
Need increased inspiration during exercise, or if holding breath (decrease oxygen availability and increase co2 availability)
• Peripheral
– Carotid bodies
– Aortic bodies
• Central- within nervous system, medulla oblongata
How do gases cross the lung/bloodmedia?
Process of diffusion.
Alveoli made of single layered cells, blood capillaries only have tunica intima and some connective tissue, so very thin, and easy process of diffusion
Both the capillaries and the alveoli are lined with simple squamous epithelium
Action spectrum
Plot of biological activity as a function of exposure to varied wavelengths of light
Barriers to infection
Physical barriers
Chemical barriers
Reflexes
Brocca’s aphasia
Can understand but cannot speak
Light reactions
Convert light energy to chemical energy as ATP and NADH
Physical barriers
Skin- brick layers of cells, most pathogens can’t get through it, also produces a hard and fibrous protein called keratin. The closest layer to the surface has the highest amount of keratin- the outermost layer of skin is dead, it produced too much keratin to function
Fibrous layer of the eyes
Mucous membrane of the respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive systems, and ear- thick membrane that prevents pathogens from getting into the circulation
Cilia
Inspiration
Diaphragm- Lungs physically sit on diaphragm, main muscle for respiration, pushes down during inspiration
External intercostal muscles- contact and push down
Neutrophils
Most abundant phagocytic cells
Release:
Cytokines- alarming chemicals to alarm other immune cells
Vasodilators- increases size of blood cells, Make blood vessel bigger so immune cells can travel
Chemotaxins- chemo attractants, attract other immune cells, travel in blood vessels and squeeze out of them, can get anywhere in the body
Right and left ventricle
pumping chambers, physically contracting to make the blood exit (simultaneously in both circuits)
Thermoreceptors
Skin/organs, measure temperature
Photophosphorylation
Light driven production of ATP
H+ transported via electron carriers across the thylakoid membrane from the stroma into the lumen, creating an electrochemical gradient
Light
A form of electromagnetic radiation
Propagated as waves, energy of light is inversely proportional to wavelength (must be appropriate wavelength to be absorbed by receptive molecules
Light also behaves as particles called photons, plants absorb these
Nucleoplasm
Surrounds the chromatin
Functions of the Respiratory System
- Provides oxygen
- Eliminates carbon dioxide
- Regulates pH level- More co2 you get rid of the more hydrogen ions you get rid of
- Speech production
- Defense against foreign bodies- non specific immunity
Dunedin
Microtubules cross linked by the spokes of this motor protein
Changes shape when energy is released from ATP, move vesicles toward minus end
Carbs can be modified by the addition of functional groups
Sugar phosphate (can make fructose biphosphate, intermediate compound in biochemical pathways) Amino sugars (glucosamine, major component of cartilage) Chitin ( insect and crustacean skeletons)
Limit of resolution for light microscopy
.61 x .4u / 1.4 = .17u
Oogenesis steps
Female germ cell (2n)
Mitosis
Oogonium (2n)
Mitosis
Primary oocyte (2n)
First meiotic division
Secondary oocyte (n) and first polar body
Second meiotic division, independent assortment of chromosomes
Ootid (n) and second polar body
Ovum (egg) (n), polar bodies degrade
Pacemaker activities
Sinoatrial node has ability to generate its own action potentials, which spread to atrioventricular node, then uncle of his, the bundle branches, then to purkinje fibers, spread from one pacemaker area to another, causes cardiac tissues to contract.
Pacemaker cells (1% of heart), make sure electrical signals are occurring and trigger release of calcium needed to contract muscles
Heart contracts in waves as the electrical activity spreads. Atrium contract first and ventricles second, gives ventricles time to relax in the slight delay
Peripheral membrane proteins
Lack exposed hydrophobic groups, do not penetrate bilayer (stay inside)
Virus
Cause major problems by taking over/infecting cells
Phosphodiester linkages
Bonds sugar and phosphate to form backbone of DNA and RNA
Like carbon 3 and carbon 5
Two strands of DNA run in opposite directions
Velocity of the action potential
Myelin speeds up the spreading of the action potential
Also insulates
Pulmonary circulation
Short distance circuit
Delivers deoxygenated (blood never has absolutely no oxygen) blood from the heart to the lungs
Mitochondria
Converts potential energy of fuel molecules into form that cell can use (ATP)
Outer lipid bilayer and highly folded inner membrane
Nonspecific immunity
Prevention
Attack- if it gets in the circulatory system
Different contributions to the zygote:
- Sperm: DNA and a centriole, in somespecies.
* Egg: DNA, organelles, nutrients, transcription factors, mRNAs.
Barriers to infection
Physical barriers
Chemical barriers
Reflexes
Steroids
Multiple rings share carbons
Chorionic villus sampling
tissue isremoved from the chorion after the eighth week
Receptor mediated endocytosis
Deeds on receptor proteins (integral membrane proteins) to bind to specific substances
Sites called coated pits, coated with other proteins such as clathrin
Twinning
- If blastomeres separate into two groups, each can produce an embryo.
- Monozygotic twins come from the same zygote and are identical.
- Nonidentical twins are from two eggs fertilized by two sperm.
Parietal lobe
Feeling sensation
Somatosensory cortex- conscious awareness of general somatic senses, precisely locate the stimulus received (spatial discrimination)
Wernicke’s area- overlaps in temporal lobe, speech comprehension
Sensory homunculus
Lymphoid tissues
Adenoids, tonsils, thymus, lymph noes, spleen, bone marrow, lymphatic vessels
Immune cells originate here, majorly from bone marrow
immune cells are scattered all over, but they are clustered in certain areas in case of infection
Functions of the extracellular matrix
Holds cells together in tissues
Contributes to physical properties of tissue
Helps filter material passing between tissues
Helps orient cell movement
Role in chemical signaling
Blastomere
- Blastomeres become determined, or committed toa specific fate, at different times in different animals.
- Roundworm and clam blastomeres are already determined at the 8-cell stage.
- If one cell is removed, a portion of the embryo fails to develop normally. This is called mosaic development.
- Humans have regulative development. If some cells are lost during cleavage, other cells can compensate. For genetic testing in humans, one cell can be removed from a blastula following in vitro fertilization. If there are no mutations in the gene of interest, that blastula can be implanted
Sharp object penetrating skin
Easiest way to get infected by a pathogen
Some cells are already in the vicinity, they destroy and then call for back up
Parts of the respiratory system
Nasal/oral cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, primary/secondary/tertiary bronchus, bronchioles (if you don’t need a lot of oxygen bronchioles are slightly constricted), alveoli (site of exchange)
All made of cartilage up to the trachea
Neurohypophysis
Posterior pituitary gland, Made of neurons, can also be called neural hypophysis
Cell bodies of neurons house in hypothalamus and only part of the axon and axon terminals are located in the posterior pituitary, hormones made of peptides synthesized in hypothalamus, are made in cells and stored in axon terminals
• Paraventricular nucleus and the supraoptic nucleus of the hypothalamussynthesize hormones that are stored in the terminals for later release
– Oxytocin
– Vasopressin (antidiuretic to prevent water loss and a vasoconstrictor)
Cell membranes and the extracellular matrix
Cell membranes adhere to the extracellular matrix
Tans,embrace protein integrity binds to the matrix outside epithelial cells and to actin filaments inside the cells, noncovalent and reversible binding
Secondary lysosome
Phagosomes fuse with primary lysosomes to form secondary lysosomes
Enzymes hydrolyze the food molecules
Phospholipids
Fatty acids bound to glycerol a phosphate group replaces one fatty acid
Phosphate group is hydrophilic “head”
“tails” are hydrophobic fatty acid chains
(ampipathic)
Ion channels
Specific channel proteins with hydrophilic pores
Electrocardiogram
Recording the electrical activities of the heart
3 sets of electrodes on two wrists, one on ankle, surface electrodes on skin pick up electrical activities from the heart, electrical activity comes from action potentials
Extracellular recording- recording sum of action potential and a high response is expected, but you get one kilovolt because of how far your surface skin is from your heart
The second law in relation to complex organisms
Metabolic process that take place in living tissues produce more disorr than order
Construction of 1kg of our body mass requires catabolism of 10kg of biological material
To maintain order, life needs constant input of energy
Steroids
Multiple rings share carbons
Immunization
Series of shots
MMR- immunization shot against meals, mumps, rubella
Small quantity of pathogens to build immune response, memory cells to speed up recovery next time
The three fundamental steps of sexual reproduction are:
– Gametogenesis (producing sperm and eggs, requires meiosis)
– Mating (getting sperm and egg together)
– Fertilization (fusion of sperm and egg)
- Gametogenesis and fertilization are fairly similar in different groups of animals.
- Mating behaviors, however, show incredible diversity.
Different amino acids
5 charged hydrophilic side chains
5 polar uncharged side chains
7 non polar hydrophobic side chains
Cysteine- has terminal sulfhydryl that allows for disulfide bonding
Glycine- H as R group
Proline- modified amino group, forms a ring with R group
Ions
Electrically charged particles, when atoms lose or gain electrons
DNA and evolution
DNA carries hereditary information between generations
Determining sequence of bases helps reveal evolutionary relationships
Closest living relatives of humans are chimps and bonobo
Phagocytic cell migration
- The cytokines released by macrophages signal the endothelial cells to express selectin
- Margination occurs- dock and fuse with membrane, carbohydrate ligands on macrophages bind to selectin in blood vessel, move in blood vessel by rolling
- Phagocytic cells produce integrin on their membrane
- Stronger attachment occurs- immune cells are allowed to slow down and exit
- Phagocytic cells begin to move from the blood to the infected area in a process known as diapedisis
- Once in the interstitial fluid, phagocytic cells are attracted to the site of injury by chemotaxins- tell phagocytic cells exactly where to go
Rough ER
Has ribosomes attached
Physical barriers
Skin- brick layers of cells, most pathogens can’t get through it, also produces a hard and fibrous protein called keratin. The closest layer to the surface has the highest amount of keratin- the outermost layer of skin is dead, it produced too much keratin to function
Fibrous layer of the eyes
Mucous membrane of the respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive systems, and ear- thick membrane that prevents pathogens from getting into the circulation
Cilia
Alveolar type II cells
Secrete surfactant which keeps the alveoli from collapsing
Electron microscope
Use electromagnets to focus an electron beam, wavelength is much shorter than light so much higher resolution .5 nm
Somites
separate, segmented blocks of cells on either side of the neural tube.
Muscle, cartilage, bone, and lower layer of the skin form from somites.
Neural crest cells are guided by somites to develop into peripheral nerves and other structures
Chemical barriers
Sebum- oily acidic substance released from sebaceous glands
Lacrimal glands- tears protect sclera and cornea, dripping through nasal cavity, washing of the eye
Lysozymes- degrading/digestive enzymes secreted from the mucous membranes
Defensins- peptides secreted from the mucous membranes
Ear wax- things get stuck
Sweat- cools body and at same time destroys microorganisms on skin, B.O. Is the degradation of bacteria on skin
Macrophages- immune cells
Stomach acid- HCl, damaging
Saliva
AP Step 4
Sodium ions flowing in further depolarize the membrane, VGPG are still closed
Explosive depolarization; potential reaches 0mV
Bone marrow
Produces mulitpotent hematopoietic cell, which in return can be a myeloid or a lymphoid progenitor cel
Stem cells- have not differentiated yet, blood stem cells can become blood cells
Two systems of electron transport
Non cyclic electron transport- produces NADPH and ATP
Cyclic electron transport- produces ATP only
- when you need more sugar you need more ATP than NADH, so cyclic transport is needed
Neutrophils
Most abundant phagocytic cells
Release:
Cytokines- alarming chemicals to alarm other immune cells
Vasodilators- increases size of blood cells, Make blood vessel bigger so immune cells can travel
Chemotaxins- chemo attractants, attract other immune cells, travel in blood vessels and squeeze out of them, can get anywhere in the body
Cytotoxic T Cell
Release perform and granzymes
Induce apoptosis (Fas)
Attack cancer cells which stop mitosis regulation and keep dividing- they bond to these and release perforins that poke h ones in the membrane, eater can go in, releases granzymes in the hole or proteins that activate apoptosis
The liver
• Hepatocytes of the liver release bile salts that functions in fat emulsification, hydrophobic lipids aggregate together, lipase cannot do its function without bile to emulsify the fat
– The break down of large fat droplets into smaller ones
• Bile salts are stored in the gall bladder
How does the endocrine system work in general?
Hormones not released over a short distance like neurotransmitters in nervous system- instead circulate throughout the body, gland releases hormones in the circulation, every cell will be exposed to it because it is traveling in the blood
Only certain cells respond to the hormones because they are very specific, only very few have universal effects on every cell, when hormone finds a matching receptor protein it becomes functional and can do the function- cell with this receptor called a target cell
Digestion: Polymers Vs Monomers
Body only cares about three major molecules, you are consuming them in the polymer, want to break down into individual units that we can absorb
- Proteins are broken down to amino acids
- Carbohydrates are broken down to glucose, fructose, galactose
- Lipids are broken down to fatty acids
Mechanoreceptors and sound
Sound converted to electrical activity, then temporal lobe interprets
Sound is vibration of air molecules
Waves of vibration can have high amplitude(loudness) or high frequency(pitch)
Limit of resolution for light microscopy
.61 x .4u / 1.4 = .17u
Nonspecific Immune response/inflammation
• Occurs through cut or injury to the skin
• Sequence of events ensue to protect the body against infection
– Phagocytosis and recruitment
– Vasodilation and increase in permeability
– Phagocytic cells migration
– Tissue repair
Lungs and the mechanisms of the chest
Easy, effortless to breath because of the mechanics of the lungs- always slightly inflated to make inspiration easier
Lungs attached to chest wall and inner layer of your rib cage by very thin set of membranes called a pleural sac
Ribs protect your lungs and work in synchrony with them, chest expands and increase in volume along with your lungs
Gestation
pregnancy
in humans is about 266 days and is divided into trimesters
Nonspecific Immune response/inflammation
• Occurs through cut or injury to the skin
• Sequence of events ensue to protect the body against infection
– Phagocytosis and recruitment
– Vasodilation and increase in permeability
– Phagocytic cells migration
– Tissue repair
Chromatin
Diffuse or long thin fibers in which DNA is bound to proteins
Prior to cell division these condense and form chromosomes
Gestation
pregnancy
in humans is about 266 days and is divided into trimesters
Microtubules
Hollow cylinders made from tubulin protein subunits
Provid rigid intracellular skeleton for some cells, function as tracks for motor proteins
Form and disassemble as the needs of the cell change
Form cilia and flagella
Nucleic acids
Polymers specialized for the storage, transmission, and use of genetic information
DNA: deoxyribonucleic acid (can convey info)
RNA: ribonucleic acid
Membranes with carbohydrates
Have carbohydrates on outer surface that serve as recognition sites for other cells and molecules
Different contributions to the zygote:
- Sperm: DNA and a centriole, in somespecies.
* Egg: DNA, organelles, nutrients, transcription factors, mRNAs.
How does myelin speed up the action potential
Voltage gated channels found in nodes of ranvier
Saltatory conductance
Membrane is thick where there is myelin, so no permeability, and VGC can only work at nodes
Spermatogenesis
Male germ cell (2n)
Mitosis
Spermatogonium (2n)
Mitosis (first DNA synthesis-Chromosomes don’t separate, cross over- DNA from two pairs get scrambled)
Primary spermatocyte (2n)
first meiotic division (no DNA synthesis)
Secondary spermatocytes (1n)
Secondary meiotic division, independent assortment of chromosomes
Spermatids (1n)
Differentiation and maturation
Sperm cells (1n)
Inferior vena cava
Brings deoxygenated blood from all structures below diaphragm
Rubisco
Enzyme that catalyzes fixation of CO2
Ribosome bisphosphate carboxylase/
Most abundant protein in the world, 50% of the protein in a leaf
AP Step 3
Sodium ions flow through the VGSC causing membrane to become depolarized and the action potential begins
Somites
separate, segmented blocks of cells on either side of the neural tube.
Muscle, cartilage, bone, and lower layer of the skin form from somites.
Neural crest cells are guided by somites to develop into peripheral nerves and other structures
Effectors
Respond to restore the deviation from the setvalues of the internal environment
Following the commands of the control center to make a change and restore the environment
Where are these microorganisms?
They like moisture, food particles, want to get in blood vessels (from there they can travel all over the body)
The female reproductive cycle actually consists of two linked cycles:
an ovarian cycle that produces eggs and hormones and a uterine cycle that prepares the endometrium for the arrival of a blastocyst
Light reactions
Convert light energy to chemical energy as ATP and NADH
Inner cell mass
• The inner cell mass of the blastocyst splits into an epiblast and hypoblast with a fluid-filled cavity in
between (just like the reptilian and avian gastrula).
- The embryo forms from the epiblast.
- The epiblast also splits off a layer of cells that form the amnion. The amnion grows around the developing embryo.
- The hypoblast cells extend to form the chorion. Thechorion and other tissues produce the placenta.
- The epiblast produces the amnion. Allantoic tissues form the umbilical cord.
Complement system
Pore formation: First complement protein (inactive), cascade of protein activation in bacterial cell
Swelling: fluid rushes into cells
Lysis
Chlorophylls a and b
Ring structure with magnesium atom in center
Hydrocarbon tail which anchors them to integral proteins in the thylakoids membrane
Absorb in red and blue region
Chemical barriers
Sebum- oily acidic substance released from sebaceous glands
Lacrimal glands- tears protect sclera and cornea, dripping through nasal cavity, washing of the eye
Lysozymes- degrading/digestive enzymes secreted from the mucous membranes
Defensins- peptides secreted from the mucous membranes
Ear wax- things get stuck
Sweat- cools body and at same time destroys microorganisms on skin, B.O. Is the degradation of bacteria on skin
Macrophages- immune cells
Stomach acid- HCl, damaging
Saliva
Function of Cortisol
- Increases the fuel availability to the brain
- Gluconeogenesis- Synthesis of glucose, started to make glucose from amino acids which is bad because you’re breaking down your proteins which you need for muscles, enzymes, micro tubules, etc. but cortisol breaks it down to make glucose with causes negative effect
- Lypolytic hormone- Breaks down fats to make sure fatty acids are available for the brain. Can end up localizing fat
- Anti-inflammatory effects- Someone’s immune system, histamine is released as an alert for immune system but that starts to decrease with cortisol (immunosuppressive)
- Affects memory function- Permanent brain damage, kills neurons permanently
- proteolytic hormone- promotes protein breakdown, prevents growth, birth of premature babies
Virus
Cause major problems by taking over/infecting cells
Sensory cells
Sense/receive info
Transduce physical or chemical stimuli into action potentials
Receptor cells
Modified neurons
Generate electrical activity but do not look like neurons
When a photon meets a molecule it can be-
Scattered- photon bounces off the molecule
Transmitted- photon passed through the molecule
Absorbed- molecule squires the energy of the photon. Goes from ground state to excited state, and disappears and energy is absorbed
Texture of phospholipid bilayer
Flexible, the interior is fluid and allows lateral movement of molecules
Fluidity depends on temperature and composition
Region with cholesterol is stiffened
Neuromuscular junction
Synapse between muscle and a neuron
Acetylcholine is the neurotransmitter
Tunica interna
Made of simple squamous epithelium (endothelium)
Provide smooth surface for blood to pass through
Primary lysosomes
Originate from Golgi apparatus
Contain digestive enzymes- macromolecules are hydrolyzed into monomers
Control center
Evaluates the information from receptors
Set point (tells what a particular value should be)
Set point is a constant level, the control center compares information from receptor to this, control center initiates the changes and makes a decision
Bacteria
Unicellular prokaryotes
Smooth ER
Ribosome free region
Light microscopes
Glass lenses focus visible light, max resolution of .2 um
Pressure change
Breathing associated with skeletal muscles that are constantly contracting and relaxing, gases are quantified by pressur
Atmospheric pressure (Patm)- pressure on the outside in the environment
Alveolar pressure (Palv)-pressure inside your lungs
Intrapleural pressure (Pip)- pressure in pleural sac, fills up with fluid that exerts pressure
Alveolar and interpleural pressure are constantly fluctuating because they depend on your state
Motility
Digestive organs lined with smooth muscles that are involuntary and constantly contract, ensure motility (gravity has nothing to do with it) and also ensure mixing of the food
• Propulsive
– Movement of food at an appropriate speed
• Mixing of food
– To promote digestion and mixing with enzymes
– To facilitate absorption
Phagocytosis
Attatchment (opsonization)- Physically bind to pathogen
Internalization, turns into phagosome
Degradation- Fuses with lysosome and becomes phagolysosome, and after the digestive enzymes can be reused
Exocytosis- elimination of debris
Eukaryotes
Membrane enclosed nucleus as well as other membrane enclosed compartments
Animals, plants, fungi, protists
Contains organelles, membrane enclosed nucleus
Protein scaffolding called cytoskeleton
Sperm anatomy
Acrosome- tip
Nucleus
Midpiece- contains mitochondria, Mitochondrial DNA from mother. When sperm goes into egg loses mitochondria
Tail- flagellum made of microtubules
Light
A form of electromagnetic radiation
Propagated as waves, energy of light is inversely proportional to wavelength (must be appropriate wavelength to be absorbed by receptive molecules
Light also behaves as particles called photons, plants absorb these
Boyle’s law
Pressure and volume are inversely proportiona
Gases in a container, when volume decreased, pressure increases due to collision of gas molecules and now these gas molecules are confined to a smaller place, so more bombardment
Lungs are always changing in volume so the pressure changes as well with inspiration and expiration
Neural mechanism
Neurons stimulate glands to release hormones
Tiny gland that sits on top of kidneys called adrenal gland- Inner layer called adrenal medulla, releases hormone called epinephrine, which helps you deal with stress, part of sympathetic nervous system, increases heart rate etc
Functions of the Respiratory System
- Provides oxygen
- Eliminates carbon dioxide
- Regulates pH level- More co2 you get rid of the more hydrogen ions you get rid of
- Speech production
- Defense against foreign bodies- non specific immunity
Kinesin
Motor protein, moves toward plus end
Gas transport through membranes
Oxygen has to cross alveoli and membrane of the capillaries to get into the plasma, and then another membrane to get inside the red blood cells
Loading phase- hemoglobin picks up oxygen
Unloading phase- release oxygen into your tissues to use, takes into mitochondria to produce ATP
Plasma
• Contain proteins that exert osmoticpressure
• Many types:
– Albumins: transport proteins
– Globulins: immune function
– Fibrinogen: clotting function
• Minerals and electrolytes
Calvin cycle stimulated by light
Protons pumped form stroma into thylakoids, increasing the pH which favors the activation of rubisco
Electron flow from photosystem one reduces disulfide bonds to activate calvin cycle enzymes
Glucose
Monosaccharide
All cells use it as an energy source
Exists most often in a ring as alpha or beta glucose depending on position of the aldehyde group (can also be found in a chain)
Arrangement of microtubules in flagella and cilia
9+2 array- 9 pairs and 2 individual microtubules in center
At the base of flagella and cilia is the nasal body, the 9 rings extend there
Calvin cycle stimulated by light
Protons pumped form stroma into thylakoids, increasing the pH which favors the activation of rubisco
Electron flow from photosystem one reduces disulfide bonds to activate calvin cycle enzymes
Primary structure of a protein
The sequence of amino acids
Determines secondary and tertiary structure, how the protein is folded
Proteins
Polymers of amino acids, each has different AA composition and order
Folding is crucial to the function of a protein, influenced by the AA sequence
Carrier proteins
Membrane proteins that bind some substances and speed their diffusion through the bilayer
Polar molecules such a glucose- glucose binds to protein which causes it to change shape and release glucose on the other side, but as transporters become saturated, the rate of diffusion into the cells slows down
Lungs and the mechanisms of the chest
Easy, effortless to breath because of the mechanics of the lungs- always slightly inflated to make inspiration easier
Lungs attached to chest wall and inner layer of your rib cage by very thin set of membranes called a pleural sac
Ribs protect your lungs and work in synchrony with them, chest expands and increase in volume along with your lungs
Stomach lumen
Inner layer of stomach, in contact with food
Rugae- Folds that increase surface areas to increase the rate of diffusion
Mucosa is outer layer that contains gastric pits, submucosa layer underneath
Best fit
Conformational state that provides the best fit binds to substrate
placenta
organ of exchange of nutrients and waste products between the embryo’s and the mother’s blood
Phagocytosis
Food molecules enter the cell through a formed phagosome
Steps of fertilization
– The sperm and egg recognize each other.
– The sperm is activated so that it can gain access to the plasma membrane of the egg.
– The plasma membranes of the sperm and egg fuse.
– The egg blocks entry of additional sperm.
– The egg is stimulated to start development.
– The egg and sperm nuclei fuse
Absorption spectrum
Plot of wavelengths absorbed by a pigment
Cleavage
a rapid series of celldivision, but no cell growth
In mammals cleavage is rotational:
First cell division is parallel to the animal–vegetal axis; yields two blastomeres.
In second division two blastomeres divide at right angles to each other;one is parallel to the axis and the other is perpendicular to it. This pattern of division is unique to mammals with placentas.
Branching of the airways
Conducting zone: trachea, primary bronchi, secondary bronchi, tertiary bronchi, bronchioles
Respiratory zone: respiratory bronchioles, alveoli (each alveolus is covered with many capillaries to facilitate the exchange of materials)
Energy transfer and electron transport
Light energy absorbed by antenna chlorophylls, and passed on to reaction center
Molecule goes to excited state
Energized electron from chlorophyll molecules passed to electron acceptor to reduce it
Lymphoid progenitor cells
Form into B lymphocytes, T lymphocytes
Fertilization
Fertilization is the union of haploid sperm and haploid egg to produce a single diploid cell, the zygote
Amino Acids Absorption
- Absorbed by secondary active transportsimilar to carbohydrates absorption
- Taken to the blood via carrier proteins
Branching of the airways
Conducting zone: trachea, primary bronchi, secondary bronchi, tertiary bronchi, bronchioles
Respiratory zone: respiratory bronchioles, alveoli (each alveolus is covered with many capillaries to facilitate the exchange of materials)
Inspiration
Diaphragm- Lungs physically sit on diaphragm, main muscle for respiration, pushes down during inspiration
External intercostal muscles- contact and push down
Cyclic electron transport
Electron from excited P700 chlorophyll molecule n photosystem one cycles back to the same chlorophyll molecule
Involves a series of exergonic redox reactions, the released energy creates a proton gradient that is used to synthesize ATP
Mechanisms of Valve Action
Shaped to prevent the back flow of blood
Different contributions to the zygote:
- Sperm: DNA and a centriole, in somespecies.
* Egg: DNA, organelles, nutrients, transcription factors, mRNAs.
G3P
Gylceraldehyde 3 phosphate
5/6 recycled into RuBP
1/6 converted to starch and sucrose to make glucose and fructose
Chlorophylls a and b
Ring structure with magnesium atom in center
Hydrocarbon tail which anchors them to integral proteins in the thylakoids membrane
Absorb in red and blue region
SS
Somatostatin
Inhibits release of GH
Cell theory
Cells are the fundamental units of life
All organisms are composed of cells
All cells come from preexisting cells
Antenna systems
Pigments arranged in these
Also called light harvesting complexes
How Are Gases Transported?
• Once in the blood, oxygen is transported in two ways
– 1.5% is dissolved in the plasma and cytosol of erythrocytes
– 98.5 % Bound to hemoglobin
When a pigment molecule absorbs a photon (excited state) the energy can be-
Released as heat and/or light
Transferred to another molecule
Used for a chemical reaction
Rubisco
Enzyme that catalyzes fixation of CO2
Ribosome bisphosphate carboxylase/
Most abundant protein in the world, 50% of the protein in a leaf
Photosystem 2
Light energy oxidizes water to oxygen, H+, and electrons
Reaction center has chlorophyll a molecules: P680 absorbs at 680 nm (more energetic than P700)
Excited first
Muscles of Expiration
• Passive expiration
– Elastic recoil of the lungs
• Active expiration
– Contraction of internal intercostals
– Contraction of abdominal muscles (causesdiaphragm to be pushed up)
seminiferous tubules
- Spermatogenesis takes place in the seminiferous tubules of the testis.
- Each tubule is lined with a stratified epithelium, within which spermatogoniareside and mature into sperm cells
Production of sperm is temperature dependent- if cold scrotum will cuddle against body
Stem cells can divide and divide and divide make sperm
Photo system 1
Light energy reduces NADP+ to NADPH
Reaction center has chlorophyll a molecules: P700 absorbs in the 700nm range
Calvin cycle stimulated by light
Protons pumped form stroma into thylakoids, increasing the pH which favors the activation of rubisco
Electron flow from photosystem one reduces disulfide bonds to activate calvin cycle enzymes
Ribosomes
Sites of protein synthesis
found free in cytoplasm, in mitochondria, bound to the endoplasmic reticulum, and in chloroplasts
Consist of ribosomal RNA and more than 50 other proteins
Muscles of Expiration
• Passive expiration
– Elastic recoil of the lungs
• Active expiration
– Contraction of internal intercostals
– Contraction of abdominal muscles (causesdiaphragm to be pushed up)
How does the endocrine system work in general?
Hormones not released over a short distance like neurotransmitters in nervous system- instead circulate throughout the body, gland releases hormones in the circulation, every cell will be exposed to it because it is traveling in the blood
Only certain cells respond to the hormones because they are very specific, only very few have universal effects on every cell, when hormone finds a matching receptor protein it becomes functional and can do the function- cell with this receptor called a target cell
How does electronegativity determine the structure of water?
O is more electronegative than H, so the O has a more negative charge
Virus
Cause major problems by taking over/infecting cells
Radioisotopes after world war II
Became readily available to cell biologists to study cell metabolism
Ex: tritium(3H) emits beta particle when one extra neutron changes into a proton
Autoradiography- radioisotopes can trace the fate of molecules in cells
Cerebellum
Another area of motor control
Maintainance of balance
Coordination and planning of skilled voluntary muscle activity
Ipsilateral- controls right side of body
Pigments
Molecules that absorb specific wavelengths in the visible range of the spectrum
Photons can have a wide range of wavelengths and energy levels
Control of breathing
Voluntary until it becomes physiologically dangerous, your brain will force you to breathe.
• Inspiration is initiated by stimulating the respiratory muscles
– Diaphragm and external intercostals
• The stimulation is initiated in the medullary centers and the pons
Medulla oblongata sends signal to spinal cord, phrenic nerve sends action potential to diaphragm. 100% controlled by brain unless you voluntarily change it, stimulation always occurring. Neurons called central patter generator, send action potentials then they stop, perfectly synced on/off mechanism
Muscle contraction
AP in axon terminals leads to NT release
EPP leads to AP
AP causes Ca2+ release
Ca2+ binds to troponin
Myosin binds to actin when there is Ca2+
Alveolar type I cells
form the wall of the alveoli
Components of the cytoskeleton
Microfilaments
Intermediate filaments
Microtubules
Nonspecific Immune response/inflammation
• Occurs through cut or injury to the skin
• Sequence of events ensue to protect the body against infection
– Phagocytosis and recruitment
– Vasodilation and increase in permeability
– Phagocytic cells migration
– Tissue repair
Processes in Calvin Benson cycle
Fixation of CO2 by combination with RuBP (catalyzes by rubisco)
Conversion of fixed CO2 into carbohydrate G3P (using ATP and NADPH)
Regeneration of CO2 acceptor RuBP by ATP
Gestation
pregnancy
in humans is about 266 days and is divided into trimesters
Z scheme
Model of noncyclic electron transport
Extracts electrons from water and transfers them to NADPH, using energy from photosynthesis one and two and resulting in ATP synthesis
Yields ATP, NADPH, and O2
Path of sperm
- To achieve fertilization, sperm swim up the vagina, assisted by contractions of the female reproductive tract.
- The sperm then pass through the cervix and most of the oviduct to the egg (secondary oocyte) in the upper oviduct.
- Egg and sperm nucleus (both haploid) fuse to produce the diploid zygote.
Polypeptides
Another name for proteins (dipeptide, tripeptide, etc)
Chlorophylls a and b
Ring structure with magnesium atom in center
Hydrocarbon tail which anchors them to integral proteins in the thylakoids membrane
Absorb in red and blue region
Organization of the immune system
Nonspecific immune response- protects against foreign substances without having to recognize their identity
Specific immune response- highly specific, usually a major problem that your body is really trying to fight
Membrane potential
Extracellular fluid is outside and overall positive(Na+ and Cl-), and intracellular fluid is inside and overall negative(K+) with an impermeable membrane in between
Separate charges are attracted to each other through the membrane and create a potential- huge driving force but permeability is not always available
How do we study organelles?
First studied using light microscopy
Cell fractionation separates organelles for study by chemical methods (spin tubes of cells with rotor)
Compliance
Ability to change volume and pressure
Balloon is like the lungs- highly compliant
Paper bag- not compliant
Right parietal lobe damage
Left body sensation
Contralateral neglect syndrome- neglect the left side of the body
Function of Cerebrospinal fluid
Bathes the brain, cools it
Acts as shock absorber
Transports nutrients, chemical messengers and waste products(dumps waste into blood)
Nuclear lamina
Meshwork of proteins which maintains the shape of the nuclear envelope and the nucleus
Electrical Activity of the Heart
- The heart is a cardiac muscle tissue that is constantly contracting (heart beat)
- Q: how does the heart contract?
- A: specialized cells called pacemaker cells that generate their own electrical activities
Monocytes/macrophages
Monocytes are inactive form, on patrol, macrophages are active, they attack
Engulf and digest
Activate T cells
Once monocytes enter tissue they become macrophages
Mode of travel of peptides and steroids
Peptides- travel easy in blood because water soluble
Lipids- mostly water so need transport proteins to shield them from hydrophillicity of blood because not water soluble
Virus
Cause major problems by taking over/infecting cells
The immune system
Protects against infection and microbes
Isolates and removes non microbial foreign substances
Muscles of Expiration
• Passive expiration
– Elastic recoil of the lungs
• Active expiration
– Contraction of internal intercostals
– Contraction of abdominal muscles (causesdiaphragm to be pushed up)
Path of zygote
- Still in the oviduct, the zygote divides to become a blastocyst and continues down the oviduct.
- In the uterus, the blastocyst attaches to the wall lining called the endometrium.
What causes Ca release?
Action potentials at the axon terminal stimulate the release of acetylcholine (neurotransmitter)
ACh minds to Ach receptors activating them, Na+ entry into the cell
Na+ depolarizes the membrane
End plate polarizations (depolarization of muscle fibers, similar to graded/receptor potential) causes action potential in muscle cell
Action potential travels down sarcolemma and dips into T Tubules
Action potential activates DHPR
DHPR protrudes and touches ryanodine receptors, activating the, leading to Ca2+ release from SR into cytosol
Fluorescence
When a pigment returns to ground state some of the energy may be given off as heat and some as fluorescence
Fluorescence has longer wavelengths and less energy than the absorbed light energy
No chemical work done
If pigment can pass the energy to another molecule, there’s no fluorescence, the energy can be passed to a reaction center where it is converted to chemical energy
Lymphoid tissues
Adenoids, tonsils, thymus, lymph noes, spleen, bone marrow, lymphatic vessels
Immune cells originate here, majorly from bone marrow
immune cells are scattered all over, but they are clustered in certain areas in case of infection
Correlation of Electrocardiogram graph and heart activities
Beginning of P wave- SA Node, AV
Middle to end of P wave- AV Nodal delay
Between P wave and QRS- Signals travel through bundle of his reaching the apex
QRS complex- pukinje fibers
Within ventricles, heart contracts from bottom to top, all the blood comes out, none remains below
Hair cells hyperpolarized
Movement of stereo cilia away from kinocilium closes stretch activated channels
No neurotransmitter release
Anencephaly
failure of the neural tube to close at the anterior end and no forebrain develops
Photosynthesis
“synthesis from light”
Plants take in CO2, produce carbohydrates, and release O2 and water
Light is required
6CO2 + 12H2O–> C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O
Proteins digestion
Dietary proteins
Salivary glands: pepsin breaks them down to small polypeptides
Pancreas: pancreatic trypsinogen and chymotrypsinogen breaks them down into smaller polypeptides, pancreatic procarboxypeptidase breaks them down into very small peptides and amino acids
Small intestine: aminopeptidases break them down into amino acids
Photophosphorylation
Light driven production of ATP
H+ transported via electron carriers across the thylakoid membrane from the stroma into the lumen, creating an electrochemical gradient
Monocytes/macrophages
Monocytes are inactive form, on patrol, macrophages are active, they attack
Engulf and digest
Activate T cells
Once monocytes enter tissue they become macrophages
Pigments
Molecules that absorb specific wavelengths in the visible range of the spectrum
Photons can have a wide range of wavelengths and energy levels
Roles of the plasma membrane
Selectively permeable barrier
Interface for cells where info is received from adjacent cells and extracellular signals
Allows cells to maintain a constant internal environment
Molecules responsible for binding to adjacent cells
Glyoxisomes
Structurally similar organelles found in plants that convert lipids to carbs (fats to sugars)
Light independent reactions
“dark reactions”
Use ATP and NADH from light reactions plus CO2 to produce carbohydrates (because coenzymes ATP and NADH are not stored, need light for light reaction first)
Nonspecific Immune response/inflammation
• Occurs through cut or injury to the skin
• Sequence of events ensue to protect the body against infection
– Phagocytosis and recruitment
– Vasodilation and increase in permeability
– Phagocytic cells migration
– Tissue repair
Neurons
Functional units of the nervous system
Able to communicate with each other and with other cells through the body through electrical and chemical signals
clitoris
the anatomical analog of the male penis that is capable of erection and is highly sensitive to sexual stimulation
Both the labia minora and clitoris become engorgedwith blood during sexual stimulation
Nucleic acids
Polymers specialized for the storage, transmission, and use of genetic information
DNA: deoxyribonucleic acid (can convey info)
RNA: ribonucleic acid
Inspiration
Diaphragm- Lungs physically sit on diaphragm, main muscle for respiration, pushes down during inspiration
External intercostal muscles- contact and push down
Bone marrow
Produces mulitpotent hematopoietic cell, which in return can be a myeloid or a lymphoid progenitor cel
Stem cells- have not differentiated yet, blood stem cells can become blood cells
Pacemaker activities
Sinoatrial node has ability to generate its own action potentials, which spread to atrioventricular node, then uncle of his, the bundle branches, then to purkinje fibers, spread from one pacemaker area to another, causes cardiac tissues to contract.
Pacemaker cells (1% of heart), make sure electrical signals are occurring and trigger release of calcium needed to contract muscles
Heart contracts in waves as the electrical activity spreads. Atrium contract first and ventricles second, gives ventricles time to relax in the slight delay
System of respiration
Constant exchange of air: ventilation (tidal volume)
Diffusion- oxygen from lungs to blood
Circulation- bulk transport
Diffusion of oxygen into cells
Cellular respiration
Acinar cells
• Acinar cells release three classes of enzymes into the duodenal lumen
– Proteolytic enzymes: trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen, and procarboxypeptidase (All enzymes that digest proteins are released in inactive form, so they can be activated when you need them and specifically digest dietary proteins instead of proteins found on the membranes of cells)
– Pancreatic amylase (digest polysaccharides into disaccharides), Completes digestion of carbohydrates
– Pancreatic lipase (digest triglycerides into glycerol and fatty acids), Needs bile from the liver to perform its function
Pressure change
Breathing associated with skeletal muscles that are constantly contracting and relaxing, gases are quantified by pressur
Atmospheric pressure (Patm)- pressure on the outside in the environment
Alveolar pressure (Palv)-pressure inside your lungs
Intrapleural pressure (Pip)- pressure in pleural sac, fills up with fluid that exerts pressure
Alveolar and interpleural pressure are constantly fluctuating because they depend on your state
Intermediate filaments
Fund in multicellular organisms, form rope like structures in cells
Stabilize cell strucuture and resist tension
Can maintain the positions of organelles
Lamins provide structural support to the nuclear membrane
Thickness of endometrium
About 5 days after ovulation it is at its maximal thickness and ready to accept
Highly proliferated and vasularized
Microbes
Harmful substances, living or dead
Microfilaments
Made of protein actin, can be single filaments or networks
Needed for cell contraction (as in muscle cells, associated with myosin for muscle contraction), also add structure to plasma membrane and shape to cells
Involved in cytoplasmic streaming and formation of pseudopodia
Polar, polymerizes to form long helical chains
Boyle’s law
Pressure and volume are inversely proportiona
Gases in a container, when volume decreased, pressure increases due to collision of gas molecules and now these gas molecules are confined to a smaller place, so more bombardment
Lungs are always changing in volume so the pressure changes as well with inspiration and expiration
Hormonal secretion
Gland releases hormone by triggering mechanism to stimulate gland to release hormone- Different gland triggered in different ways
Gap junctions in cardiac muscles
protein ensures exchange of material between cells, important in heart because they ensure synchrony in contraction by spreading electrical activities
(ex all cells in atria contract at the same time, in ventricles those cells contract simultaneously to ensure efficiency)
Membranes with carbohydrates
Have carbohydrates on outer surface that serve as recognition sites for other cells and molecules
Quaternary structure
Interaction of subunits by hydrophobic interactions, van der waals forces, ionic bonds, and hydrogen bonds
Each subunit has its own tertiary structure
Most common phospholipids
Derived from glycerol except for sphingomylein
Cell recognition and adhesion
Sponge cells- separation and come back together
Glycoproteins are involved in cell recognition and binding
Homotypic binding- same molecule sticks out from both cells and forms a bond
Heterotypic binding- cells have different proteins
Turgor pressure
Plant cells with rigid walls build up internal pressure that keeps more water from entering
Ectoderm in heat
They have to move to a cooler area, behavioral mechanism
As temperature increases their body temperature increases
Nonspecific Immune response/inflammation
• Occurs through cut or injury to the skin
• Sequence of events ensue to protect the body against infection
– Phagocytosis and recruitment
– Vasodilation and increase in permeability
– Phagocytic cells migration
– Tissue repair
Extracellular matrix
Composed of fibrous proteins (like collagen) and glycoproteins
Epithelial cells (lining human body cavities) have basement membrane of extracellular material called the basal lamina
Bipolar neurons
Two extensions only
Found in ears, nose, and eyes
Functions as sensory neurons, allows you to feel
Pressure change
Breathing associated with skeletal muscles that are constantly contracting and relaxing, gases are quantified by pressur
Atmospheric pressure (Patm)- pressure on the outside in the environment
Alveolar pressure (Palv)-pressure inside your lungs
Intrapleural pressure (Pip)- pressure in pleural sac, fills up with fluid that exerts pressure
Alveolar and interpleural pressure are constantly fluctuating because they depend on your state
Parts of the respiratory system
Nasal/oral cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, primary/secondary/tertiary bronchus, bronchioles (if you don’t need a lot of oxygen bronchioles are slightly constricted), alveoli (site of exchange)
All made of cartilage up to the trachea
T-Tubules and SR
Special voltage sensitive calcium channels (more like sensors of electrical activity) known as dihydropyridine receptors located on T Tubules, undergoes a conformational change when activated
Ryanodine receptors(foot proteins) located on lateral sacs of SR, they are typical ligand gated calcium channels that are a gateway for calcium ions to go into the cell cytosol because there is a high concentration in the SR that could build up and be toxic
Compliance
Ability to change volume and pressure
Balloon is like the lungs- highly compliant
Paper bag- not compliant
How do arteries move blood?
Arteries have high pressure, and blood aided by gravity so blood can reach far such as feet
Types of lipids
Fats and oils- store energy
Phospholipids- structural role in cell membranes
Carotenoids and chlorophylls- capture light energy in plants
Steroids and modified fatty acids- hormones and vitamins
Animal fat- thermal insulation
Lipid coating around nerves- electrical insulation
Oil and wax on skin fur and feathers- repels water
The three fundamental steps of sexual reproduction are:
– Gametogenesis (producing sperm and eggs, requires meiosis)
– Mating (getting sperm and egg together)
– Fertilization (fusion of sperm and egg)
- Gametogenesis and fertilization are fairly similar in different groups of animals.
- Mating behaviors, however, show incredible diversity.
Functional group
Groups of atoms with specific chemical properties and consistent behavior
Each macromolecule has at least one
Triglycerides
Simple lipids composed of fatty acids and glycerol (ex:fats and oils)
How do gases cross the lung/bloodmedia?
Process of diffusion.
Alveoli made of single layered cells, blood capillaries only have tunica intima and some connective tissue, so very thin, and easy process of diffusion
Both the capillaries and the alveoli are lined with simple squamous epithelium
Childbirth
- Passage of the baby is assisted by the mother’s bearing down with her abdominal muscles.
- Once the baby is clear of the birth canal it canstart breathing and become independent of the mother’s circulation, so the umbilical cord is clamped and cut.
- Finally, the placenta and fetal membranes are detached from the mother and expelled (several minutes–1 hour)
Autoimmune disease
Immune system turned against you, attacks a particular tissue
- diabetes type 1: attacks beta cells that produce insulin
- multiple sclerosis: attacks myelin, slows electrical activities
- rheumatoid arthritis: attacks joints
Energy transfer and electron transport
Light energy absorbed by antenna chlorophylls, and passed on to reaction center
Molecule goes to excited state
Energized electron from chlorophyll molecules passed to electron acceptor to reduce it
Energy transfer and electron transport
Light energy absorbed by antenna chlorophylls, and passed on to reaction center
Molecule goes to excited state
Energized electron from chlorophyll molecules passed to electron acceptor to reduce it
Nucleoplasm
Surrounds the chromatin
Lymphoid progenitor cells
Form into B lymphocytes, T lymphocytes
Sodium-potassium pump
Primary active transport, found in all animal cells
Pump is an integral membrane glycoprotein that is an antiporter
Gets 3 sodium ions out and 2 potassium ions in by hydrolyzing ATP
Photosystem
Multiple antenna systems, surround reaction centers
Pigments packed together on thylakoids membrane proteins
Excitation energy passes from the pigments that absorb short wavelengths to those that absorb longer wavelengths, and ends up in the reaction center pigment
Protist
Uni or multicellular, contaminate lakes and drinking water to invade host
Hemoglobin
Hemoglobin is a metal (iron) that is positively charged, and oxygen negatively charged, so they bind
Mechanisms of steroids action on target cells
Every cell exposed to this hormone, and steroid cell is hydrophobic so can interact with every cell but not every cell has receptor
Exits blood vessel to get to the target cell
Steroid permeates through cell membrane and forms complex called hormone receptor complex in nucleus, bind to a section of DNA gene called hormone response element that activates the gene to start gene expression
Messenger RNA made and goes to the cell cytosol
Synthesizes protien and makes changes inside the cell and causes cellular response
Slow process but major changes
Pressure and Volume Change
During inspiration the volume of the lungs increases and the pressure decreases- atmospheric pressure is higher than alveolar pressure, and diffusion can occur
During expiration, the volume of the lungs decreases and the pressure increases- alveolar pressure becomes higher than atmospheric pressure- diffusion outwards
Kinesin
Motor protein, moves toward plus end
seminiferous tubules
- Spermatogenesis takes place in the seminiferous tubules of the testis.
- Each tubule is lined with a stratified epithelium, within which spermatogoniareside and mature into sperm cells
Production of sperm is temperature dependent- if cold scrotum will cuddle against body
Stem cells can divide and divide and divide make sperm
Gas transport through membranes
Oxygen has to cross alveoli and membrane of the capillaries to get into the plasma, and then another membrane to get inside the red blood cells
Loading phase- hemoglobin picks up oxygen
Unloading phase- release oxygen into your tissues to use, takes into mitochondria to produce ATP
Korbian Brodmann
Successfully mapped the brain- 52 areas responsible for different functions
Secondary lysosome
Phagosomes fuse with primary lysosomes to form secondary lysosomes
Enzymes hydrolyze the food molecules
Carbs can be modified by the addition of functional groups
Sugar phosphate (can make fructose biphosphate, intermediate compound in biochemical pathways) Amino sugars (glucosamine, major component of cartilage) Chitin ( insect and crustacean skeletons)
AP Step 5
Once membrane reaches +30 mV the VGSC inactivate blocking the flow of sodium ions
VGPC opens causing potassium ions to flow out and repolarize the membrane
At -70 perfect repolarization begins
Blastocoel
a central fluid-filled cavity that forms in the ball of cells
The embryo becomes a blastula and its cells are called blastomeres
Blastocoel
a central fluid-filled cavity that forms in the ball of cells
The embryo becomes a blastula and its cells are called blastomeres
Extensive ER membrane system
Cells specialized for synthesizing proteins have these
Function of Saliva in theMouth
- Contains amylase (enzyme that helps general digestion) and lingual lipase (digests lipids, minimal role)
- Facilitates swallowing by moistening food particles
- Provides antibacterial action by releasing lysozymes
- Saliva dissolves food particles to stimulate taste buds, which need to be moist in order for you to taste
- Aids in speech
- Neutralizes ingested acid
Specific Recognition Between Sperm and Egg
- Specific recognition molecules mediate interactions between sperm and eggs.
- This ensures that activities of the sperm are directed toward eggs and not other cells and prevents eggs from being fertilized by sperm of the wrong species.
- This latter function is particularly importantin aquatic species, such as sea urchins, that release sperm and eggs into the surrounding water.
Carotenoids
Light-absorbing pigments
Source of vitamin A
Fluorescence
When a pigment returns to ground state some of the energy may be given off as heat and some as fluorescence
Fluorescence has longer wavelengths and less energy than the absorbed light energy
No chemical work done
If pigment can pass the energy to another molecule, there’s no fluorescence, the energy can be passed to a reaction center where it is converted to chemical energy
Glycosidic linkages
Monosaccharides bind together in these condensation reactions
Can be alpha or beta
First trimester
embryo becomes a fetus
Heart begins to beat by week 4
Limbs form by week 8
The first trimester is the period during which the fetus is most susceptible to damage from radiation, drugs, chemicals, and agents that cause birth defects.
The hormone hCG (human chorionic gonadotropin) is released after implantation and is an early indicator of pregnancy
Primary lysosomes
Originate from Golgi apparatus
Contain digestive enzymes- macromolecules are hydrolyzed into monomers
Waxes
Highly nonpolar and impermeable to water
Ester linkage between saturated long chain fatty acid and a saturated long chain alcohol
Lipids digestion
Dietary lipids
Pancreas and liver: bile salts break fat globules down into fat droplets, pancreatic lipase breaks them down into glycerol, fatty acids, monoglycerides
Glycolipids
Carbohydrate and lipid
Tympanic membrane
Ear drum, small membrane connected to ossicles
During gastrulation, three germ layers form
– The inner germ layer is the endoderm and gives rise to the digestive tract, circulatory tract, and respiratory tract.
– The outer layer, the ectoderm, gives rise to the epidermis and nervous system.
– The middle layer, the mesoderm, contributes to bone, muscle, liver, heart, and blood vessels
Types of lipids
Fats and oils- store energy
Phospholipids- structural role in cell membranes
Carotenoids and chlorophylls- capture light energy in plants
Steroids and modified fatty acids- hormones and vitamins
Animal fat- thermal insulation
Lipid coating around nerves- electrical insulation
Oil and wax on skin fur and feathers- repels water
Pathogens
Parasite
Bacteria
Protist
Fungi
Virus
Lymphoid progenitor cells
Form into B lymphocytes, T lymphocytes
Phagocytosis
Attatchment (opsonization)- Physically bind to pathogen
Internalization, turns into phagosome
Degradation- Fuses with lysosome and becomes phagolysosome, and after the digestive enzymes can be reused
Exocytosis- elimination of debris
Polar covalent bond
One atom has more electronegativity
Mast cells
- Mast cells are found throughout connective tissues (not found in blood)
- They release histamine and other chemicals involved in inflammation
Polypeptides
Another name for proteins (dipeptide, tripeptide, etc)
Branching of the airways
Conducting zone: trachea, primary bronchi, secondary bronchi, tertiary bronchi, bronchioles
Respiratory zone: respiratory bronchioles, alveoli (each alveolus is covered with many capillaries to facilitate the exchange of materials)
Saltatory conductance part 1
Active node at peak of action potential, depolarization spreads to adjacent inactive node and raises it to the threshold. Remainder of nodes still at resting potential
Viagra
first introduced for heart problems, sexual excitation, want blood to flow to the penis faster than it flows out, need dilation of blood vessels which requires neurotransmitter nitrous oxide, produces a dilation of the blood vessels. If excessive production of phosphodiesterase, it breaks down nitrous oxide. But Viagra inhibits phosphodiesterase, that can cause problems with vision and the breakdown of cyclic gmp
Coupling of reactions
Endergonic reaction releases energy (cell respiration and catabolism), high energy bonds in ATP because it takes a lot of energy to hold together the negatively charged phosphate groups, so a lot of engy is released when broken
Exeronic reaction requires energy (active transport, cell movements, anabolism)
Ends up in a cycle
Pili
Threadlike structures, help bacteria adhere to one another during mating or to other cells for food and protection
Some prokaryotes have these
Bacteria
Unicellular prokaryotes
Fluorescence
When a pigment returns to ground state some of the energy may be given off as heat and some as fluorescence
Fluorescence has longer wavelengths and less energy than the absorbed light energy
No chemical work done
If pigment can pass the energy to another molecule, there’s no fluorescence, the energy can be passed to a reaction center where it is converted to chemical energy
Centrioles
Made of microtubules
Fund in organizing center near the cell nucleus
Similar to basal bodies, but in center of call and help in movement of chromosomes during cell division
Energy transfer and electron transport
Light energy absorbed by antenna chlorophylls, and passed on to reaction center
Molecule goes to excited state
Energized electron from chlorophyll molecules passed to electron acceptor to reduce it
Sarcolemma
has extensions (invaginations) that dig deep into the cytoplasm known as TTubules
Phospholipid with embedded proteins but the many invaginations maximize contact and make the electrical activities go deep inside the muscle cells so that it is closer to the myofibrils, activates certain muscles located near the SR
Function of Saliva in theMouth
- Contains amylase (enzyme that helps general digestion) and lingual lipase (digests lipids, minimal role)
- Facilitates swallowing by moistening food particles
- Provides antibacterial action by releasing lysozymes
- Saliva dissolves food particles to stimulate taste buds, which need to be moist in order for you to taste
- Aids in speech
- Neutralizes ingested acid
Sharp object penetrating skin
Easiest way to get infected by a pathogen
Some cells are already in the vicinity, they destroy and then call for back up
Virus
Cause major problems by taking over/infecting cells
Oogenesis
- Oogenesis produces eggs.
- Individual egg maturation can be arrested for months, or for as long as 10 (puberty) to 50 (menopause) years in humans!
- During this phase, the primary oocyte grows and addsto its energy, ribosome, and organelle stores. This tpermits the resulting embryo to have nourishment.
Regulatory subunit
Inhibitors and activators bind here
Vacuoles
In plant and protist cells
Store waste products and toxic compounds; some may deter herbivores
Provides structure for plant cells, water enters by osmosis and creates turbot pressure
Stores anthocyanins(pigment) in flowers/fruit to attract pollinators
Digestive enzymes to hydrolyze stored food for early growth
CO2 fixation
CO2 is reduced to carbohydrates
Enzymes in the stroma use the energy in ATP and NADPH to reduce CO2
Because the ATP and NADPH are not “stockpiled,” these light independent reactions must also take place in light
AIDS
Acquired immune deficiency syndrome, viruses attack immune cells, vulnerable system open to opportunistic infection
Gastrulation
Gastrulation is the process in which a blastulais transformed into an embryo with three
tissue layers and body axes
Sharp object penetrating skin
Easiest way to get infected by a pathogen
Some cells are already in the vicinity, they destroy and then call for back up
Acid
Releases hydrogen ions through ionization, ph less than 7
Cilia
Shorter, present in great numbers
Proteins digestion
Dietary proteins
Salivary glands: pepsin breaks them down to small polypeptides
Pancreas: pancreatic trypsinogen and chymotrypsinogen breaks them down into smaller polypeptides, pancreatic procarboxypeptidase breaks them down into very small peptides and amino acids
Small intestine: aminopeptidases break them down into amino acids
Different contributions to the zygote:
- Sperm: DNA and a centriole, in somespecies.
* Egg: DNA, organelles, nutrients, transcription factors, mRNAs.
Phagocytosis
Attatchment (opsonization)- Physically bind to pathogen
Internalization, turns into phagosome
Degradation- Fuses with lysosome and becomes phagolysosome, and after the digestive enzymes can be reused
Exocytosis- elimination of debris
Microbes
Harmful substances, living or dead
Chorionic villus sampling
tissue isremoved from the chorion after the eighth week
Chemical barriers
Sebum- oily acidic substance released from sebaceous glands
Lacrimal glands- tears protect sclera and cornea, dripping through nasal cavity, washing of the eye
Lysozymes- degrading/digestive enzymes secreted from the mucous membranes
Defensins- peptides secreted from the mucous membranes
Ear wax- things get stuck
Sweat- cools body and at same time destroys microorganisms on skin, B.O. Is the degradation of bacteria on skin
Macrophages- immune cells
Stomach acid- HCl, damaging
Saliva
When a pigment molecule absorbs a photon (excited state) the energy can be-
Released as heat and/or light
Transferred to another molecule
Used for a chemical reaction
Chromatin
Diffuse or long thin fibers in which DNA is bound to proteins
Prior to cell division these condense and form chromosomes
Path of zygote
- Still in the oviduct, the zygote divides to become a blastocyst and continues down the oviduct.
- In the uterus, the blastocyst attaches to the wall lining called the endometrium.
Autoimmune disease
Immune system turned against you, attacks a particular tissue
- diabetes type 1: attacks beta cells that produce insulin
- multiple sclerosis: attacks myelin, slows electrical activities
- rheumatoid arthritis: attacks joints
Absorption spectrum
Plot of wavelengths absorbed by a pigment
Amniocentesis
extraction of amnioticfluid with a needle, after the fourteenth week of pregnancy
Sertoli cells
• The germ cells are protected from noxioussubstances in the blood by Sertoli cells, which also provide nutrients for the developing sperm and are involved in the hormonal control of spermatogenesis.
Photosynthesis in noncyclic electron electron transport
Each photosystem consists of several chlorophyll and accessory pigment molecules
Complement each other, must be constantly absorbing light energy to power noncyclic electron transport
Mitochondrial matrix
Region enclosed by inner membrane
Krebs or citric acid cycle takes place here
Smooth ER
Ribosome free region
Phagocytosis & Recruitment
- Macrophages in the nearby tissue detect bacteria using receptor proteins to engulf them
- Macrophages release cytokines- chemicals for recruitment
- Mast cells release histamine- causes vasodilation
- Injured cells release chemotaxins- chemo attractants to attract immune cells
Sharp object penetrating skin
Easiest way to get infected by a pathogen
Some cells are already in the vicinity, they destroy and then call for back up
Bacteria
Unicellular prokaryotes
Lipids digestion
Dietary lipids
Pancreas and liver: bile salts break fat globules down into fat droplets, pancreatic lipase breaks them down into glycerol, fatty acids, monoglycerides
Eukaryotes
Membrane enclosed nucleus as well as other membrane enclosed compartments
Animals, plants, fungi, protists
Contains organelles, membrane enclosed nucleus
Protein scaffolding called cytoskeleton
Hypothalamus and anterior pituitary
• The hypothalamus controls the anterior pituitary by secreting hypophysiotropic hormones (releasing hormones)
– Dopamine (DA)
– Gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH)
– Thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH)
– Corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH)
– Growth hormone releasing hormone (GHRH)– Somatostatin (SS)
Phagocytosis
Attatchment (opsonization)- Physically bind to pathogen
Internalization, turns into phagosome
Degradation- Fuses with lysosome and becomes phagolysosome, and after the digestive enzymes can be reused
Exocytosis- elimination of debris
Components of homeostatic system
• Receptors
– Provide information about specific conditions
• Control Center
– Evaluates the information from receptors
– Set point
• Effectors
– Respond to restore the deviation from the setvalues of the internal environment
Amino Acids Absorption
- Absorbed by secondary active transportsimilar to carbohydrates absorption
- Taken to the blood via carrier proteins
Nuclear pores
In the nuclear envelope, connect the interior of the nucleus with the rest of the cytoplasm
Pore complex- 8 large protein granules surround each pore
RNA and proteins must pass through these pores to enter or leave the nucleus
Processes in Calvin Benson cycle
Fixation of CO2 by combination with RuBP (catalyzes by rubisco)
Conversion of fixed CO2 into carbohydrate G3P (using ATP and NADPH)
Regeneration of CO2 acceptor RuBP by ATP
Base
Releases hydroxide ions, accept H+, ph greater than 7
Photo system 1
Light energy reduces NADP+ to NADPH
Reaction center has chlorophyll a molecules: P700 absorbs in the 700nm range
Absorption spectrum
Plot of wavelengths absorbed by a pigment
Sharp object penetrating skin
Easiest way to get infected by a pathogen
Some cells are already in the vicinity, they destroy and then call for back up
Second trimester
limbs elongate and facial features form
Golgi apparatus
Has flattened membrane sacs and small membrane enclosed vesicles
Phagocytosis
Attatchment (opsonization)- Physically bind to pathogen
Internalization, turns into phagosome
Degradation- Fuses with lysosome and becomes phagolysosome, and after the digestive enzymes can be reused
Exocytosis- elimination of debris
G3P
Gylceraldehyde 3 phosphate
5/6 recycled into RuBP
1/6 converted to starch and sucrose to make glucose and fructose
Blastocoel
a central fluid-filled cavity that forms in the ball of cells
The embryo becomes a blastula and its cells are called blastomeres
Pathogens
Parasite
Bacteria
Protist
Fungi
Virus
Male genitalia
Penis and scrotum
Pressure and Volume Change
During inspiration the volume of the lungs increases and the pressure decreases- atmospheric pressure is higher than alveolar pressure, and diffusion can occur
During expiration, the volume of the lungs decreases and the pressure increases- alveolar pressure becomes higher than atmospheric pressure- diffusion outwards
Photosynthesis
“synthesis from light”
Plants take in CO2, produce carbohydrates, and release O2 and water
Light is required
6CO2 + 12H2O–> C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O
Sterile cotton swab
Collect microorganisms by smearing on surface
Put on a culture dish with solution called tryptic soy agar, which has nutrients that make bacteria reproduce so you can see them
Premature Contractions and Delivery
- A positive feedback loop develops (mechanical stimuli increase the release of oxytocin, and vice versa), and this converts Braxton-Hicks contractions into stronger labor contractions.
- In the early stage of labor, contractions gradually become more frequent and intense until they haveopened the cervix.
- In the delivery stage, the baby’s head moves into the vagina and becomes visible from the outside.
- The usual head-down position of the baby comes about during the seventh month of pregnancy.
Nuclear pores
In the nuclear envelope, connect the interior of the nucleus with the rest of the cytoplasm
Pore complex- 8 large protein granules surround each pore
RNA and proteins must pass through these pores to enter or leave the nucleus
Pili
Threadlike structures, help bacteria adhere to one another during mating or to other cells for food and protection
Some prokaryotes have these
TRH
Thyrotropin releasing hormone
Stimulates release of TSH
Photosynthesis
“synthesis from light”
Plants take in CO2, produce carbohydrates, and release O2 and water
Light is required
6CO2 + 12H2O–> C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O
Anencephaly
failure of the neural tube to close at the anterior end and no forebrain develops
Cleavage
a rapid series of celldivision, but no cell growth
In mammals cleavage is rotational:
First cell division is parallel to the animal–vegetal axis; yields two blastomeres.
In second division two blastomeres divide at right angles to each other;one is parallel to the axis and the other is perpendicular to it. This pattern of division is unique to mammals with placentas.
Centrioles
Made of microtubules
Fund in organizing center near the cell nucleus
Similar to basal bodies, but in center of call and help in movement of chromosomes during cell division
How does photosynthesis convert light energy to chemical energy?
Reaction center converts light energy to chemical energy
Excited chlorophyll a molecule (Chl*) is a reducing agent (electron donor)
A is an acceptor molecule (oxidizing agent)
Chl* + A –> Chl+ + A-
A is the first in a chain of electron carriers on the thylakoid membrane (electron transport) a series of redox reactions
Final electron acceptor is NADP+
NADP+ + e- –> NADPH + H+
Eukaryotes
Membrane enclosed nucleus as well as other membrane enclosed compartments
Animals, plants, fungi, protists
Contains organelles, membrane enclosed nucleus
Protein scaffolding called cytoskeleton
Genome
Complete set of DNA in a living organism
Vasodilation & Increased Permeability
• Histamine causes vasodilation
– increases diameter, Increase in blood flow to infected area
– Redness occurs
– Increase delivery of proteins
– Edema occurs- swelling, fluid from blood cells into interstitial tissue
- increased permeability- proteins gain entry from blood to interstitial fluid
- objective- get more immune cells
Secondary structure
Alpha helix- right handed coil, resulting from hydrogen bonding, common in fibrous structural proteins
Beta pleated sheet- two or more polypeptide chains are aligned, hydrogen bonded
Muscles of Expiration
• Passive expiration
– Elastic recoil of the lungs
• Active expiration
– Contraction of internal intercostals
– Contraction of abdominal muscles (causesdiaphragm to be pushed up)
Monosaccharides with different numbers of carbons
Hexoses: six carbons, has structural isomers (mannose, galactose, fructose)
Pentoses: five carbons (ribose has OH, deoxyribose is more stable, has H)
Processes in Calvin Benson cycle
Fixation of CO2 by combination with RuBP (catalyzes by rubisco)
Conversion of fixed CO2 into carbohydrate G3P (using ATP and NADPH)
Regeneration of CO2 acceptor RuBP by ATP
Photosystem 2
Light energy oxidizes water to oxygen, H+, and electrons
Reaction center has chlorophyll a molecules: P680 absorbs at 680 nm (more energetic than P700)
Excited first
Non spontaneous reaction
Need input of energy
Endergonic, positive delta G
Reverse process must be exergonic
Oval window
Membrane covered opening, leads from middle ear to inner ear
Lymphoid progenitor cells
Form into B lymphocytes, T lymphocytes
How do veins move blood?
low pressure because at the end of that circuit, hold the majority of blood, and if the blood is going back up it is working against gravity, dead on skeletal muscles
Skeletal muscle pump- veins are in between muscles and contraction pumps blood, valves in veins prevent blood from coming back down when muscles relax
Microbes
Harmful substances, living or dead
Autoimmune disease
Immune system turned against you, attacks a particular tissue
- diabetes type 1: attacks beta cells that produce insulin
- multiple sclerosis: attacks myelin, slows electrical activities
- rheumatoid arthritis: attacks joints
Ingredients for photosynthesis
Co2 reduced to sugars that travel throughout the plant body
Water up taken by roots
Water and oxygen released
Path of the egg
the mature egg is released into the body cavity and is swept into the end of the oviduct (Fallopian tube) by an undulating fringe of tissue (Fertilization takes place in the oviduct and, in humans, the second meiotic division takes place)
Cilia lining the oviduct propel the fertilized or unfertilized egg toward the uterus, a muscular, thick-walled cavity
The opening at the bottom of the uterus is the cervix,which leads into the vagina
Salts
Ionically bonded compounds
Hemoglobin
Hemoglobin is a metal (iron) that is positively charged, and oxygen negatively charged, so they bind
Pressure change
Breathing associated with skeletal muscles that are constantly contracting and relaxing, gases are quantified by pressur
Atmospheric pressure (Patm)- pressure on the outside in the environment
Alveolar pressure (Palv)-pressure inside your lungs
Intrapleural pressure (Pip)- pressure in pleural sac, fills up with fluid that exerts pressure
Alveolar and interpleural pressure are constantly fluctuating because they depend on your state
If blocker blocked gated channels?
It would stop action potentials
Tetrodotoxin- in puffer fish, affects predators
novociane- pain suppressors block VGSC, both reversible
Spina bifida
failure of the neural tube to fuse in a posterior region dueto vitamin B deficiency
Lungs and the mechanisms of the chest
Easy, effortless to breath because of the mechanics of the lungs- always slightly inflated to make inspiration easier
Lungs attached to chest wall and inner layer of your rib cage by very thin set of membranes called a pleural sac
Ribs protect your lungs and work in synchrony with them, chest expands and increase in volume along with your lungs
Cations
Positive
Function of the DigestiveSystem
- Breaks down the food we eat, breaking the covalent bonds that make up large molecules
- Absorbs the food to transfer it to cells
- Food can be used with oxygen to produce energy
- travels from digestive system into blood, so it can be accessible to our cells
Gated channels
Can be closed or open to ion passage, most ion channels are gated
Gate opens when protein is stimulated to change shape
Stimulus can be molecule (ligand gated) or electrical charge resulting from many ions (voltage gated)
Stoma
Mouth of plant
Co2 enters and O2/water exit through these pores
How is Carbon Dioxide Transported?
5-6% dissolved in plasma
5-8% bind to hemoglobin at a different binding site than oxygen
86-90% converted to hydrogen ions and bicarbonate by enzyme called carbonic anhydrase. When co2 goes up hydrogen ions go up and ph decreases, and vice versa. Want ph of 7.4
Binocular vision
Overlap of left and right visual field, gives us depth perception
Spermatogenesis
Male germ cell (2n)
Mitosis
Spermatogonium (2n)
Mitosis (first DNA synthesis-Chromosomes don’t separate, cross over- DNA from two pairs get scrambled)
Primary spermatocyte (2n)
first meiotic division (no DNA synthesis)
Secondary spermatocytes (1n)
Secondary meiotic division, independent assortment of chromosomes
Spermatids (1n)
Differentiation and maturation
Sperm cells (1n)
Chemoreceptors
Homeostatic mechanism: Chemoreceptors constantly measuring level of oxygen and co2, send signal through sensory nerve fibers
Need increased inspiration during exercise, or if holding breath (decrease oxygen availability and increase co2 availability)
• Peripheral
– Carotid bodies
– Aortic bodies
• Central- within nervous system, medulla oblongata
Major endocrine glands
Hypothalamus, pineal, pituitary, Thyroid,Parathyroid, Adrenal glands, Pancreas, Gonads
Hemoglobin
Hemoglobin is a metal (iron) that is positively charged, and oxygen negatively charged, so they bind
Complement system
Pore formation: First complement protein (inactive), cascade of protein activation in bacterial cell
Swelling: fluid rushes into cells
Lysis
emission
contractions of smooth muscles in the vasa deferentia and accessory glands move semen into the urethra
Gas transport through membranes
Oxygen has to cross alveoli and membrane of the capillaries to get into the plasma, and then another membrane to get inside the red blood cells
Loading phase- hemoglobin picks up oxygen
Unloading phase- release oxygen into your tissues to use, takes into mitochondria to produce ATP
Ruben and kamen
Used radioisotope tracers (O18 and O16) to determine that water was the source of O2 released during photosynthesis rather than CO2
Autoimmune disease
Immune system turned against you, attacks a particular tissue
- diabetes type 1: attacks beta cells that produce insulin
- multiple sclerosis: attacks myelin, slows electrical activities
- rheumatoid arthritis: attacks joints
Processes in Calvin Benson cycle
Fixation of CO2 by combination with RuBP (catalyzes by rubisco)
Conversion of fixed CO2 into carbohydrate G3P (using ATP and NADPH)
Regeneration of CO2 acceptor RuBP by ATP
Neutrophils
Most abundant phagocytic cells
Release:
Cytokines- alarming chemicals to alarm other immune cells
Vasodilators- increases size of blood cells, Make blood vessel bigger so immune cells can travel
Chemotaxins- chemo attractants, attract other immune cells, travel in blood vessels and squeeze out of them, can get anywhere in the body
Accessory pigments
Transfer energy absorbed to chorophylls
Carotenoids and phycobilins
Absorb intermediate between red and blue
Sterile cotton swab
Collect microorganisms by smearing on surface
Put on a culture dish with solution called tryptic soy agar, which has nutrients that make bacteria reproduce so you can see them
Phagocytosis
Food molecules enter the cell through a formed phagosome
Peroxisomes
Also called microbodies
Small organelles specialized to compartmentalize toxic peroxides and break them down
Break down of hydrogen peroxide through catalase
Autoimmune disease
Immune system turned against you, attacks a particular tissue
- diabetes type 1: attacks beta cells that produce insulin
- multiple sclerosis: attacks myelin, slows electrical activities
- rheumatoid arthritis: attacks joints
Pigments
Molecule that undergoes chemical change when responding to light
Rods- protein rhodopsin
Cones- protein photopsin, S(blue) M(green) L(red) pigments
These proteins contain a pigment called retinal
third trimester
internal organs mature and organ systems begin to function
The last organs to mature before birthare the lungs
Parts of the respiratory system
Nasal/oral cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, primary/secondary/tertiary bronchus, bronchioles (if you don’t need a lot of oxygen bronchioles are slightly constricted), alveoli (site of exchange)
All made of cartilage up to the trachea
Mast cells
- Mast cells are found throughout connective tissues (not found in blood)
- They release histamine and other chemicals involved in inflammation
Organization of the immune system
Nonspecific immune response- protects against foreign substances without having to recognize their identity
Specific immune response- highly specific, usually a major problem that your body is really trying to fight
Cochlea
Filled with fluid
3 chambers: scala vestibuli/tympani (filled with perilymph, a filtrate of csf, movement of this generates electrical activity) and also cochlear duct (filled with endolymph)
Organ of corti in the center
Connected to auditory nerve
Hormonal secretion
Gland releases hormone by triggering mechanism to stimulate gland to release hormone- Different gland triggered in different ways
Cytotoxic T Cell
Release perform and granzymes
Induce apoptosis (Fas)
Attack cancer cells which stop mitosis regulation and keep dividing- they bond to these and release perforins that poke h ones in the membrane, eater can go in, releases granzymes in the hole or proteins that activate apoptosis
Nuclear envelope
Formed by two lipid bilayers
Photo system 1
Light energy reduces NADP+ to NADPH
Reaction center has chlorophyll a molecules: P700 absorbs in the 700nm range
Gestation
pregnancy
in humans is about 266 days and is divided into trimesters
Blood
Made of cellular components, erythrocytes(red blood cells, carry oxygen), leukocytes, and platelets (minimize blood loss and promote blood plotting) suspended in a plasma fluid
Plasma contains water and proteins (hormones, ions, glucose, amino acids etc)
Only fluid like connective tissue, 90% water. Fluid and cellular component
Energy transfer and electron transport
Light energy absorbed by antenna chlorophylls, and passed on to reaction center
Molecule goes to excited state
Energized electron from chlorophyll molecules passed to electron acceptor to reduce it
G3P
Gylceraldehyde 3 phosphate
5/6 recycled into RuBP
1/6 converted to starch and sucrose to make glucose and fructose
Premature Contractions and Delivery
- A positive feedback loop develops (mechanical stimuli increase the release of oxytocin, and vice versa), and this converts Braxton-Hicks contractions into stronger labor contractions.
- In the early stage of labor, contractions gradually become more frequent and intense until they haveopened the cervix.
- In the delivery stage, the baby’s head moves into the vagina and becomes visible from the outside.
- The usual head-down position of the baby comes about during the seventh month of pregnancy.
Artery
Strong elastic vessels that carry blood away from the heart
Branch into smaller arterioles
Elastic- when heart ejects blood they have to accommodate a large amount of blood, very high pressure, contraction of heart, arteries accommodating this force
Uniform shape
Lipids
Non polar hydrocarbons
Van der waals forces- not polymers in strict sense because they are not covalently bonded
Amniocentesis
extraction of amnioticfluid with a needle, after the fourteenth week of pregnancy
Unipolar neurons
Short single process and divide into two long branches
Function as sensory (efferent) neuron
Movement from capillaries into interstitial fluid
Small things such as ions, glucose, amino acids can move through slits
Small proteins need to move by transcytosis (endo and exo cytosis)
Large proteins cannot get through
Gap junctions
Allow communication, transmit current through channels
Regulated and controlled by ions
Ruben and kamen
Used radioisotope tracers (O18 and O16) to determine that water was the source of O2 released during photosynthesis rather than CO2
GH
Growth hormone
Promotes growth
Target organ: muscles, liver, bones, etc
Chemical structure of hormones
- Hormones can be made of steroids or peptides
- Their synthesis and secretion vary
- Their chemical structure determines their mechanisms of action on target cells
Gestation
pregnancy
in humans is about 266 days and is divided into trimesters
Different contributions to the zygote:
- Sperm: DNA and a centriole, in somespecies.
* Egg: DNA, organelles, nutrients, transcription factors, mRNAs.
Control of breathing
Voluntary until it becomes physiologically dangerous, your brain will force you to breathe.
• Inspiration is initiated by stimulating the respiratory muscles
– Diaphragm and external intercostals
• The stimulation is initiated in the medullary centers and the pons
Medulla oblongata sends signal to spinal cord, phrenic nerve sends action potential to diaphragm. 100% controlled by brain unless you voluntarily change it, stimulation always occurring. Neurons called central patter generator, send action potentials then they stop, perfectly synced on/off mechanism
Rods in the dark
Photoreceptors are depolarized, no signal to the brain
Chemically gated channels area activated by guanosine mono phosphate (a nucleotide), when these levels are high channels are opened
Steps:
CGMP levels are high
Na+ channels are open
Na+ influx causes depolarization- small activity, receptor potential
Ca+ channels open
Ca+ influx occurs
NT release causes graded potential in bipolar cells
Peroxisomes
Also called microbodies
Small organelles specialized to compartmentalize toxic peroxides and break them down
Break down of hydrogen peroxide through catalase
Pacemaker cells
- Sinoatrial node (SA) located in the right atrium
- Atrioventricular node (AV) located on the interatrial septum
- Bundle of His: located on the interventicular septum
- Bundle branches
- Purkinje fibers: located on the ventricular walls
When a pigment molecule absorbs a photon (excited state) the energy can be-
Released as heat and/or light
Transferred to another molecule
Used for a chemical reaction
Inferior vena cava
Brings deoxygenated blood from all structures below diaphragm
Complement system
Pore formation: First complement protein (inactive), cascade of protein activation in bacterial cell
Swelling: fluid rushes into cells
Lysis
Cyclic electron transport
Electron from excited P700 chlorophyll molecule n photosystem one cycles back to the same chlorophyll molecule
Involves a series of exergonic redox reactions, the released energy creates a proton gradient that is used to synthesize ATP
Proteins and lipids in the membrane interacting
Independent, only interact noncovalently
Some membrane proteins have fatty acids or other lipid groups covalently attached, called anchored membrane proteins
Pressure and Volume Change
During inspiration the volume of the lungs increases and the pressure decreases- atmospheric pressure is higher than alveolar pressure, and diffusion can occur
During expiration, the volume of the lungs decreases and the pressure increases- alveolar pressure becomes higher than atmospheric pressure- diffusion outwards
Receptors
Provide information about specific conditions
Group of cells that detects and senses the environment, do not have the ability to change anything, they are like a reporting agency that sends info to control center
Flagella
Come in ones and twos, longer than cilia
Blastomere
- Blastomeres become determined, or committed toa specific fate, at different times in different animals.
- Roundworm and clam blastomeres are already determined at the 8-cell stage.
- If one cell is removed, a portion of the embryo fails to develop normally. This is called mosaic development.
- Humans have regulative development. If some cells are lost during cleavage, other cells can compensate. For genetic testing in humans, one cell can be removed from a blastula following in vitro fertilization. If there are no mutations in the gene of interest, that blastula can be implanted
Diameter of blood vessels
Blood vessels decrease in diameter when a part of your body is not in use, happens because of the tunica media.
Arteries- more tunica media because more regulation
Rest (tone), vasoconstriction, vasodilation
Arrangement of microtubules in flagella and cilia
9+2 array- 9 pairs and 2 individual microtubules in center
At the base of flagella and cilia is the nasal body, the 9 rings extend there
Peristaltic contraction
Unidirectional movement of food through the stomach
Chorionic villus sampling
tissue isremoved from the chorion after the eighth week
Protist
Uni or multicellular, contaminate lakes and drinking water to invade host
Axon
Each neuron has one, generates and conducts signals away from the soma (unidirectional)
Abundant micro tubules for transport
Also known as nerve fibers
Phagocytosis & Recruitment
- Macrophages in the nearby tissue detect bacteria using receptor proteins to engulf them
- Macrophages release cytokines- chemicals for recruitment
- Mast cells release histamine- causes vasodilation
- Injured cells release chemotaxins- chemo attractants to attract immune cells
How is polypeptide chain organized?
Like a sentence- “capital letter” is like the amino group of the first amino acid, and the “period” is like the carboxyl group of the last amino acid
Components of homeostatic system
Receptors
Control centers
Effectors
Vein
Carry blood back to the heart
Have thinner walls than arteries
Small branches are called venules
Not elastic, have low pressure
Thin and collapsed
Triglycerides
Simple lipids composed of fatty acids and glycerol (ex:fats and oils)
Creatine supplements
Do not make a difference for the average individual (maybe will give Olympic athlete the extra boost they need) increases power for a limited amount of time and then the effect is gone
Photo system 1
Light energy reduces NADP+ to NADPH
Reaction center has chlorophyll a molecules: P700 absorbs in the 700nm range
Antenna systems
Pigments arranged in these
Also called light harvesting complexes
Limit of resolution for light microscopy
.61 x .4u / 1.4 = .17u
Photosystem
Multiple antenna systems, surround reaction centers
Pigments packed together on thylakoids membrane proteins
Excitation energy passes from the pigments that absorb short wavelengths to those that absorb longer wavelengths, and ends up in the reaction center pigment
Somites
separate, segmented blocks of cells on either side of the neural tube.
Muscle, cartilage, bone, and lower layer of the skin form from somites.
Neural crest cells are guided by somites to develop into peripheral nerves and other structures
Where are these microorganisms?
They like moisture, food particles, want to get in blood vessels (from there they can travel all over the body)
Nuclear envelope
Formed by two lipid bilayers
Mast cells
- Mast cells are found throughout connective tissues (not found in blood)
- They release histamine and other chemicals involved in inflammation
Inspiration
Diaphragm- Lungs physically sit on diaphragm, main muscle for respiration, pushes down during inspiration
External intercostal muscles- contact and push down
Hypophysis (pituitary gland)
Located behind your nose, size of pea, need it to survive
9 hormones each with particular function
Two separate lobes (anterior and posterior)
Alveolar type II cells
Secrete surfactant which keeps the alveoli from collapsing
Neural pathway
Skin receptors to sensory neuron (receives signal and sends to CNS) to interneuron(processes) to motor neuron to effector
Photosynthesis
“synthesis from light”
Plants take in CO2, produce carbohydrates, and release O2 and water
Light is required
6CO2 + 12H2O–> C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O
Functions of the Respiratory System
- Provides oxygen
- Eliminates carbon dioxide
- Regulates pH level- More co2 you get rid of the more hydrogen ions you get rid of
- Speech production
- Defense against foreign bodies- non specific immunity
Extracellular destruction: complement
• Membrane Attack Complex (MAC)
– Embeds itself in the microbe membrane, forming pores
– Water and salt enter the microbe
Proteins released by liver to do the job: complement system
Z scheme
Model of noncyclic electron transport
Extracts electrons from water and transfers them to NADPH, using energy from photosynthesis one and two and resulting in ATP synthesis
Yields ATP, NADPH, and O2
Accessory Digestive Organs
Food does not get to them but there is important secretion
• Salivary glands – Sublingual (under tongue), submandibular (under mandible), parotid (gland by ear • Pancreas • Liver • Gallbladder
What Affects Hb-OxygenBinding?
Demands for oxygen changing depending on your state. (if sitting, cells in legs not picking up that much oxygen) so ATP production chants, and more ATP produced the more oxygen you get delivered. Waste products signify how much ATP you are making so your red blood cells know.
- BPG (2,3 Bisphosphoglyceric acid)- BPG by product of glycolysis- when increases, unload more oxygen.
- Temperature
- Acidity- lactic acid is byproduct of fermentation
Ribosomes
Sites of protein synthesis
found free in cytoplasm, in mitochondria, bound to the endoplasmic reticulum, and in chloroplasts
Consist of ribosomal RNA and more than 50 other proteins
Functions of the Respiratory System
- Provides oxygen
- Eliminates carbon dioxide
- Regulates pH level- More co2 you get rid of the more hydrogen ions you get rid of
- Speech production
- Defense against foreign bodies- non specific immunity
Calvin and benson
Used 14C radioisotope to determine the sequence of reactions in CO2 fixation
Exposed chlorella to 14CO2 then extracted the organic compounds and separated them by paper chromatography
3 second exposure of chlorella to 14CO2 revealed that the first compound to be formed is 3PG, a 3 carbon sugar phosphate
Gas transport through membranes
Oxygen has to cross alveoli and membrane of the capillaries to get into the plasma, and then another membrane to get inside the red blood cells
Loading phase- hemoglobin picks up oxygen
Unloading phase- release oxygen into your tissues to use, takes into mitochondria to produce ATP
Where are these microorganisms?
They like moisture, food particles, want to get in blood vessels (from there they can travel all over the body)
Functions of the extracellular matrix
Holds cells together in tissues
Contributes to physical properties of tissue
Helps filter material passing between tissues
Helps orient cell movement
Role in chemical signaling
Leydig cells
Male sex hormones are produced by clusters of Leydig cells lying between the seminiferous tubules.
Ester linkage
Carboxyl bind with hydroxyls of glycerol
Cell membranes and the extracellular matrix
Cell membranes adhere to the extracellular matrix
Tans,embrace protein integrity binds to the matrix outside epithelial cells and to actin filaments inside the cells, noncovalent and reversible binding
Secondary active transport
Energy comes from an ion concentration gradient that is established by primary active transport
Energy can be “regained” by letting ions move across a membrane with the concentration gradient
Aids in uptake of amino acids and sugars
Uses symporters and antiporters
Light reactions
Convert light energy to chemical energy as ATP and NADH
Entry of Sperm into the Egg
- In animals with internal fertilization, egg–sperm recognition mechanisms also exist.
- In the female reproductive tract, mammalian sperm are metabolically activated and attracted to the egg in the oviduct, but also aided in their movement by muscular contractions.
- The mammalian egg is surrounded by a thick layer called the cumulus. Beneath that is a protein envelope called the zona pellucida.
- A species-specific glycoprotein in the zona pellucida binds to the head of the sperm.
- The acrosomal reaction is triggered, releasing acrosomal enzymes that digest a path through the zona pellucida
Plasma
• Contain proteins that exert osmoticpressure
• Many types:
– Albumins: transport proteins
– Globulins: immune function
– Fibrinogen: clotting function
• Minerals and electrolytes
Physical barriers
Skin- brick layers of cells, most pathogens can’t get through it, also produces a hard and fibrous protein called keratin. The closest layer to the surface has the highest amount of keratin- the outermost layer of skin is dead, it produced too much keratin to function
Fibrous layer of the eyes
Mucous membrane of the respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive systems, and ear- thick membrane that prevents pathogens from getting into the circulation
Cilia
Gastrulation
Gastrulation is the process in which a blastulais transformed into an embryo with three
tissue layers and body axes
Osmosis
Diffusion of water
Depends on number of solute particles present, not the type of particles
If two solutions are separated by a membrane that allows water but not solutes to pass through the water will diffuse of the region of higher water concentration to the region of lower water concentration
(water will go from hypotonic to hypertonic)
The small intestine
- The small intestine is made of three parts: duodenum, jejunum, and ileum
- Bile and pancreatic enzymes are released into the duodenum
- The circular folds of the small intestine contain finger like projections called villi
- Villi increase the surface area, space in between called crypt of Lieberk hn
- Each villus is made of many epithelial cells
- Each epithelial cell contains microvilli (brush border)- One end of epithelial cell faces the food, one end faces the blood vessel, side that faces food have micro villi
Functions of the extracellular matrix
Holds cells together in tissues
Contributes to physical properties of tissue
Helps filter material passing between tissues
Helps orient cell movement
Role in chemical signaling
placenta
organ of exchange of nutrients and waste products between the embryo’s and the mother’s blood
emission
contractions of smooth muscles in the vasa deferentia and accessory glands move semen into the urethra
Photosystem 2
Light energy oxidizes water to oxygen, H+, and electrons
Reaction center has chlorophyll a molecules: P680 absorbs at 680 nm (more energetic than P700)
Excited first
Roles of Golgi apparatus
Receive proteins from ER and modify them
Concentrate/package/sort proteins before they are sent to their destinations
Sme polysaccharides for plant cell walls are synthesized
Rubisco
Enzyme that catalyzes fixation of CO2
Ribosome bisphosphate carboxylase/
Most abundant protein in the world, 50% of the protein in a leaf
seminal vesicles
produce about two-thirds of the volume of semen, consisting of mucus, fibrinogen (clotting agent), and fructose as an energy source for the sperm
Antenna systems
Pigments arranged in these
Also called light harvesting complexes
During gastrulation, three germ layers form
– The inner germ layer is the endoderm and gives rise to the digestive tract, circulatory tract, and respiratory tract.
– The outer layer, the ectoderm, gives rise to the epidermis and nervous system.
– The middle layer, the mesoderm, contributes to bone, muscle, liver, heart, and blood vessels
Secondary lysosome
Phagosomes fuse with primary lysosomes to form secondary lysosomes
Enzymes hydrolyze the food molecules
Path of zygote
- Still in the oviduct, the zygote divides to become a blastocyst and continues down the oviduct.
- In the uterus, the blastocyst attaches to the wall lining called the endometrium.
Nucleotides
Monomers of nucleic acid
Pentoses sugar, phosphate group, nitrogen containing base
(without phosphate group called nucleosides)
Parasite
Any organism that invades and lives by the expense of another body
Most are animals, either micro or macroscopic
Infects muscles and digestive system takes blood (muscles) and nutrients (liver)
How do gases cross the lung/bloodmedia?
Process of diffusion.
Alveoli made of single layered cells, blood capillaries only have tunica intima and some connective tissue, so very thin, and easy process of diffusion
Both the capillaries and the alveoli are lined with simple squamous epithelium
Barriers to infection
Physical barriers
Chemical barriers
Reflexes
ovarian cycle
- The ovarian cycle repeats about every 28 days.
- A woman’s fertile years total about 450 ovarian cycles. In each cycle in most cases, one oocyte matures and is released.
- The end of fertility (menopause) occurs at about age 50, and only a few oocytes are left in each ovary.
Dunedin
Microtubules cross linked by the spokes of this motor protein
Changes shape when energy is released from ATP, move vesicles toward minus end
The immune system
Protects against infection and microbes
Isolates and removes non microbial foreign substances
Sterile cotton swab
Collect microorganisms by smearing on surface
Put on a culture dish with solution called tryptic soy agar, which has nutrients that make bacteria reproduce so you can see them
Sarcoplasmic reticulum
Modified smooth ER, stores calcium
Found around myofibrils
Lateral sacs are the the end segments that release calcium upon stimulation
Calcium released by a series of events
The immune system
Protects against infection and microbes
Isolates and removes non microbial foreign substances
Gestation
pregnancy
in humans is about 266 days and is divided into trimesters
Chemical bond
Attractive force that links atoms together to form molecules
All chemical bonds involve changes in the relationships of electrons one with the other
Bone marrow
Produces mulitpotent hematopoietic cell, which in return can be a myeloid or a lymphoid progenitor cel
Stem cells- have not differentiated yet, blood stem cells can become blood cells
Boyle’s law
Pressure and volume are inversely proportiona
Gases in a container, when volume decreased, pressure increases due to collision of gas molecules and now these gas molecules are confined to a smaller place, so more bombardment
Lungs are always changing in volume so the pressure changes as well with inspiration and expiration
First trimester
embryo becomes a fetus
Heart begins to beat by week 4
Limbs form by week 8
The first trimester is the period during which the fetus is most susceptible to damage from radiation, drugs, chemicals, and agents that cause birth defects.
The hormone hCG (human chorionic gonadotropin) is released after implantation and is an early indicator of pregnancy
Inner cell mass
• The inner cell mass of the blastocyst splits into an epiblast and hypoblast with a fluid-filled cavity in
between (just like the reptilian and avian gastrula).
- The embryo forms from the epiblast.
- The epiblast also splits off a layer of cells that form the amnion. The amnion grows around the developing embryo.
- The hypoblast cells extend to form the chorion. Thechorion and other tissues produce the placenta.
- The epiblast produces the amnion. Allantoic tissues form the umbilical cord.
Pathogens
Parasite
Bacteria
Protist
Fungi
Virus
Vasodilation & Increased Permeability
• Histamine causes vasodilation
– increases diameter, Increase in blood flow to infected area
– Redness occurs
– Increase delivery of proteins
– Edema occurs- swelling, fluid from blood cells into interstitial tissue
- increased permeability- proteins gain entry from blood to interstitial fluid
- objective- get more immune cells
Fertilization
Fertilization is the union of haploid sperm and haploid egg to produce a single diploid cell, the zygote
Negative feedback mechanism
a decrease in function in response to a stimulus
Mixed endocrine glands
Thymus, heart, stomach, kidneys, and small intestine
The small intestine
- The small intestine is made of three parts: duodenum, jejunum, and ileum
- Bile and pancreatic enzymes are released into the duodenum
- The circular folds of the small intestine contain finger like projections called villi
- Villi increase the surface area, space in between called crypt of Lieberk hn
- Each villus is made of many epithelial cells
- Each epithelial cell contains microvilli (brush border)- One end of epithelial cell faces the food, one end faces the blood vessel, side that faces food have micro villi
Inner cell mass
• The inner cell mass of the blastocyst splits into an epiblast and hypoblast with a fluid-filled cavity in
between (just like the reptilian and avian gastrula).
- The embryo forms from the epiblast.
- The epiblast also splits off a layer of cells that form the amnion. The amnion grows around the developing embryo.
- The hypoblast cells extend to form the chorion. Thechorion and other tissues produce the placenta.
- The epiblast produces the amnion. Allantoic tissues form the umbilical cord.
Centrioles
Made of microtubules
Fund in organizing center near the cell nucleus
Similar to basal bodies, but in center of call and help in movement of chromosomes during cell division
Duodenum
Receives:
Food from stomach
Important secretions from pancreas
Secretion from liver and gall bladder
Complete absorption will occur here
System of respiration
Constant exchange of air: ventilation (tidal volume)
Diffusion- oxygen from lungs to blood
Circulation- bulk transport
Diffusion of oxygen into cells
Cellular respiration
Positive feedback system
Things are out of control and we lose stability, things keep increasing and we cannot stop it
Ex: Menstrual cycle, keep producing estrogen and very unstable, also lactation, can continue basically forever
Childbirth
- Passage of the baby is assisted by the mother’s bearing down with her abdominal muscles.
- Once the baby is clear of the birth canal it canstart breathing and become independent of the mother’s circulation, so the umbilical cord is clamped and cut.
- Finally, the placenta and fetal membranes are detached from the mother and expelled (several minutes–1 hour)
Photosynthesis in noncyclic electron electron transport
Each photosystem consists of several chlorophyll and accessory pigment molecules
Complement each other, must be constantly absorbing light energy to power noncyclic electron transport
Path of sperm
- To achieve fertilization, sperm swim up the vagina, assisted by contractions of the female reproductive tract.
- The sperm then pass through the cervix and most of the oviduct to the egg (secondary oocyte) in the upper oviduct.
- Egg and sperm nucleus (both haploid) fuse to produce the diploid zygote.
Photosynthesis in noncyclic electron electron transport
Each photosystem consists of several chlorophyll and accessory pigment molecules
Complement each other, must be constantly absorbing light energy to power noncyclic electron transport
Allergy
Overactive or disproportionate immune system
Chemicals released
Anti histamine can be used (because histamine is the alarm)
Allergy
Overactive or disproportionate immune system
Chemicals released
Anti histamine can be used (because histamine is the alarm)
Peripheral membrane proteins
Lack exposed hydrophobic groups, do not penetrate bilayer (stay inside)
Bacteria
Unicellular prokaryotes
Total energy in any system
Total energy = usable energy + unusable energy
Enthalpy (H)= free energy (G) + entropy (S)
H= G + TS
Gastrulation
Gastrulation is the process in which a blastulais transformed into an embryo with three
tissue layers and body axes
Hemoglobin
Hemoglobin is a metal (iron) that is positively charged, and oxygen negatively charged, so they bind
Muscle cell
Excitable cell
Modified plasma membrane known as the sarcolemma
Gastrulation
Gastrulation is the process in which a blastulais transformed into an embryo with three
tissue layers and body axes
Amniocentesis
extraction of amnioticfluid with a needle, after the fourteenth week of pregnancy
Phospholipid movement in the bilayer
Lateral diffusion, flexing, and rotation but no flip flop
Action spectrum
Plot of biological activity as a function of exposure to varied wavelengths of light
Cyclic electron transport
Electron from excited P700 chlorophyll molecule n photosystem one cycles back to the same chlorophyll molecule
Involves a series of exergonic redox reactions, the released energy creates a proton gradient that is used to synthesize ATP
Fungi
Yeast is a unicellular form
Ex: athlete’s foot
Organization of the immune system
Nonspecific immune response- protects against foreign substances without having to recognize their identity
Specific immune response- highly specific, usually a major problem that your body is really trying to fight
Quaternary structure
Interaction of subunits by hydrophobic interactions, van der waals forces, ionic bonds, and hydrogen bonds
Each subunit has its own tertiary structure
Chlorophylls a and b
Ring structure with magnesium atom in center
Hydrocarbon tail which anchors them to integral proteins in the thylakoids membrane
Absorb in red and blue region
How does photosynthesis convert light energy to chemical energy?
Reaction center converts light energy to chemical energy
Excited chlorophyll a molecule (Chl*) is a reducing agent (electron donor)
A is an acceptor molecule (oxidizing agent)
Chl* + A –> Chl+ + A-
A is the first in a chain of electron carriers on the thylakoid membrane (electron transport) a series of redox reactions
Final electron acceptor is NADP+
NADP+ + e- –> NADPH + H+
Amniocentesis
extraction of amnioticfluid with a needle, after the fourteenth week of pregnancy
Macrophages in alveoli
Ward against foreign bodies, get rid of debris
Pathogens
Parasite
Bacteria
Protist
Fungi
Virus
Lipid composition in plasma membranes
Phospholipids vary- fatty acid chain length, degree of saturation, phosphate groups
Can be up to 25 percent cholesterol
Fluorescence
When a pigment returns to ground state some of the energy may be given off as heat and some as fluorescence
Fluorescence has longer wavelengths and less energy than the absorbed light energy
No chemical work done
If pigment can pass the energy to another molecule, there’s no fluorescence, the energy can be passed to a reaction center where it is converted to chemical energy
What Affects Hb-OxygenBinding?
Demands for oxygen changing depending on your state. (if sitting, cells in legs not picking up that much oxygen) so ATP production chants, and more ATP produced the more oxygen you get delivered. Waste products signify how much ATP you are making so your red blood cells know.
- BPG (2,3 Bisphosphoglyceric acid)- BPG by product of glycolysis- when increases, unload more oxygen.
- Temperature
- Acidity- lactic acid is byproduct of fermentation
Blastocoel
a central fluid-filled cavity that forms in the ball of cells
The embryo becomes a blastula and its cells are called blastomeres
Hyperpolarization
Membrane potential more negative than resting potential
Membrane of rod
When light shines at photoreceptor, the protein rhodopsin changes shape and activates, then transducin (protein) breaks off it’s complex and moves along the membrane to activate phosphodiesterase, triggering cGMP breakdown, so reduces cGMP level
How Are Gases Transported?
• Once in the blood, oxygen is transported in two ways
– 1.5% is dissolved in the plasma and cytosol of erythrocytes
– 98.5 % Bound to hemoglobin
Ingredients for photosynthesis
Co2 reduced to sugars that travel throughout the plant body
Water up taken by roots
Water and oxygen released
Resolution
Limiting factor in all microscopes, need high resolution to see detail
Cytotoxic T Cell
Release perform and granzymes
Induce apoptosis (Fas)
Attack cancer cells which stop mitosis regulation and keep dividing- they bond to these and release perforins that poke h ones in the membrane, eater can go in, releases granzymes in the hole or proteins that activate apoptosis
Chloroplasts
Sites where photosynthesis occurs, one type of plastid
Surrounded by two layers and have interal membrane system
Lysosomes
Vesicles containing digestive enzymes that come in part from the Golgi
Sites for breakdown of food and foreign material brought into the cell by phagocytosis
Detection of spent cellular components- autophagy- cell components are frequently destroyed and replaced with new ones
During gastrulation, three germ layers form
– The inner germ layer is the endoderm and gives rise to the digestive tract, circulatory tract, and respiratory tract.
– The outer layer, the ectoderm, gives rise to the epidermis and nervous system.
– The middle layer, the mesoderm, contributes to bone, muscle, liver, heart, and blood vessels
What properties of water make it so important in biology?
Polar molecule
Forms hydrogen bonds
Has tetrahedral shape
Organization of the immune system
Nonspecific immune response- protects against foreign substances without having to recognize their identity
Specific immune response- highly specific, usually a major problem that your body is really trying to fight
Path of sperm
- To achieve fertilization, sperm swim up the vagina, assisted by contractions of the female reproductive tract.
- The sperm then pass through the cervix and most of the oviduct to the egg (secondary oocyte) in the upper oviduct.
- Egg and sperm nucleus (both haploid) fuse to produce the diploid zygote.
Supraoptic nucleus
Makes vasopressin
Anti diuretic hormone,prevents water loss. Target organ is kidneys where we have water control
Chemoreceptors
Homeostatic mechanism: Chemoreceptors constantly measuring level of oxygen and co2, send signal through sensory nerve fibers
Need increased inspiration during exercise, or if holding breath (decrease oxygen availability and increase co2 availability)
• Peripheral
– Carotid bodies
– Aortic bodies
• Central- within nervous system, medulla oblongata
Repolarization
When a membrane potential has been depolarized or hyperpolarized and returns to its resting value
Polar covalent bond
One atom has more electronegativity
Macrophages in alveoli
Ward against foreign bodies, get rid of debris
Heart beat
The closing of one set of valves after another
Depolarization
Membrane potential is less negative an resting potential
Photosynthetic prokaryotes
Some bacteria, including Cyanobacteria can do carry on photosynthesis
Plasma membrane is unfolded and has chlorophyll
Inner cell mass
• The inner cell mass of the blastocyst splits into an epiblast and hypoblast with a fluid-filled cavity in
between (just like the reptilian and avian gastrula).
- The embryo forms from the epiblast.
- The epiblast also splits off a layer of cells that form the amnion. The amnion grows around the developing embryo.
- The hypoblast cells extend to form the chorion. Thechorion and other tissues produce the placenta.
- The epiblast produces the amnion. Allantoic tissues form the umbilical cord.
Myeloid progenitor cells
Blood/platelets or immune cells produced
Types of immune cells:
Granular cells- neutrophils, mast cells
agranular cells- monocytes, macrophages,
Mechanisms of Valve Action
Shaped to prevent the back flow of blood
trophoblast
- In mammals, the first extraembryonic membrane to form is the trophoblast.
- When the blastocyst hatches from the zona pellucida, the trophoblast cells attach to the uterine wall, This is the beginning of implantation.
- The trophoblast becomes part of the uterine wall, and sends out villi to increase surface area and contact with maternal blood.
Blood
Made of cellular components, erythrocytes(red blood cells, carry oxygen), leukocytes, and platelets (minimize blood loss and promote blood plotting) suspended in a plasma fluid
Plasma contains water and proteins (hormones, ions, glucose, amino acids etc)
Only fluid like connective tissue, 90% water. Fluid and cellular component
Chemical structure of hormones
- Hormones can be made of steroids or peptides
- Their synthesis and secretion vary
- Their chemical structure determines their mechanisms of action on target cells
Starch
Storage of glucose in plants
Branched
The Stomach
- Located between the esophagus and the small intestine
- Starts the digestion of proteins, constantly mixing the food to mix it with enzymes and secretions
- Functions in gastric mixing and gastric emptying
- Large temporary storage area
- Top gastroesophagael sphincter and bottom pyloric sphincter that slowly allows food into the duodenum
Photosynthesis in noncyclic electron electron transport
Each photosystem consists of several chlorophyll and accessory pigment molecules
Complement each other, must be constantly absorbing light energy to power noncyclic electron transport
Boyle’s law
Pressure and volume are inversely proportiona
Gases in a container, when volume decreased, pressure increases due to collision of gas molecules and now these gas molecules are confined to a smaller place, so more bombardment
Lungs are always changing in volume so the pressure changes as well with inspiration and expiration
Chemoreceptors
Homeostatic mechanism: Chemoreceptors constantly measuring level of oxygen and co2, send signal through sensory nerve fibers
Need increased inspiration during exercise, or if holding breath (decrease oxygen availability and increase co2 availability)
• Peripheral
– Carotid bodies
– Aortic bodies
• Central- within nervous system, medulla oblongata
The Stomach
- Located between the esophagus and the small intestine
- Starts the digestion of proteins, constantly mixing the food to mix it with enzymes and secretions
- Functions in gastric mixing and gastric emptying
- Large temporary storage area
- Top gastroesophagael sphincter and bottom pyloric sphincter that slowly allows food into the duodenum
Stoma
Mouth of plant
Co2 enters and O2/water exit through these pores
Components of the cytoskeleton
Microfilaments
Intermediate filaments
Microtubules
Phagocytic cell migration
- The cytokines released by macrophages signal the endothelial cells to express selectin
- Margination occurs- dock and fuse with membrane, carbohydrate ligands on macrophages bind to selectin in blood vessel, move in blood vessel by rolling
- Phagocytic cells produce integrin on their membrane
- Stronger attachment occurs- immune cells are allowed to slow down and exit
- Phagocytic cells begin to move from the blood to the infected area in a process known as diapedisis
- Once in the interstitial fluid, phagocytic cells are attracted to the site of injury by chemotaxins- tell phagocytic cells exactly where to go
Viagra
first introduced for heart problems, sexual excitation, want blood to flow to the penis faster than it flows out, need dilation of blood vessels which requires neurotransmitter nitrous oxide, produces a dilation of the blood vessels. If excessive production of phosphodiesterase, it breaks down nitrous oxide. But Viagra inhibits phosphodiesterase, that can cause problems with vision and the breakdown of cyclic gmp
Equilibrium
Particles continue to move but there is no net change in distribution
Net movement is directional until equilibrium is reached
Allergy
Overactive or disproportionate immune system
Chemicals released
Anti histamine can be used (because histamine is the alarm)
Chromatin
Diffuse or long thin fibers in which DNA is bound to proteins
Prior to cell division these condense and form chromosomes
CO2 fixation
CO2 is reduced to carbohydrates
Enzymes in the stroma use the energy in ATP and NADPH to reduce CO2
Because the ATP and NADPH are not “stockpiled,” these light independent reactions must also take place in light
Gastric Mucosa
• Mucosa cells
– Release mucus, watery solution with salt ions, basic chemicals to neutralize acid and make it less harmful to stomach
• Chief cells
– Release pepsinogen, enzyme that can break down proteins but it’s not activated, needs highly acidic environment
• Parietal cells
– Release HCl, and Intrinsic factor (absorption of vitamins, B12)
Blastocyst
When blastula reaches 16 to 32 cells, it divides into two groups:
- Inner cell mass: becomes the embryo
- Trophoblast: a sac that forms from the outer cells. Its cells secrete fluid and create the blastocoel, with the inner cell mass at one end. Embryo is now called a blastocyst.
G3P
Gylceraldehyde 3 phosphate
5/6 recycled into RuBP
1/6 converted to starch and sucrose to make glucose and fructose
Photosynthesis
“synthesis from light”
Plants take in CO2, produce carbohydrates, and release O2 and water
Light is required
6CO2 + 12H2O–> C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O
Fertilization
Fertilization is the union of haploid sperm and haploid egg to produce a single diploid cell, the zygote
Phagocytosis
Food molecules enter the cell through a formed phagosome
Steps in neurulation
- The ectoderm over the notochord thickens and forms the neural plate.
- Edges of the neural plate fold and a deep groove forms.
- The folds fuse, forming the neural tube and a layer of ectoderm, The anterior end of the neural tube becomes the brain, the rest becomes the spinal cord
Vasodilation & Increased Permeability
• Histamine causes vasodilation
– increases diameter, Increase in blood flow to infected area
– Redness occurs
– Increase delivery of proteins
– Edema occurs- swelling, fluid from blood cells into interstitial tissue
- increased permeability- proteins gain entry from blood to interstitial fluid
- objective- get more immune cells
Cytotoxic T Cell
Release perform and granzymes
Induce apoptosis (Fas)
Attack cancer cells which stop mitosis regulation and keep dividing- they bond to these and release perforins that poke h ones in the membrane, eater can go in, releases granzymes in the hole or proteins that activate apoptosis
Cytotoxic T Cell
Release perform and granzymes
Induce apoptosis (Fas)
Attack cancer cells which stop mitosis regulation and keep dividing- they bond to these and release perforins that poke h ones in the membrane, eater can go in, releases granzymes in the hole or proteins that activate apoptosis
Branching of the airways
Conducting zone: trachea, primary bronchi, secondary bronchi, tertiary bronchi, bronchioles
Respiratory zone: respiratory bronchioles, alveoli (each alveolus is covered with many capillaries to facilitate the exchange of materials)
Chromatin
Diffuse or long thin fibers in which DNA is bound to proteins
Prior to cell division these condense and form chromosomes
Blastocyst
When blastula reaches 16 to 32 cells, it divides into two groups:
- Inner cell mass: becomes the embryo
- Trophoblast: a sac that forms from the outer cells. Its cells secrete fluid and create the blastocoel, with the inner cell mass at one end. Embryo is now called a blastocyst.
Chlorophylls a and b
Ring structure with magnesium atom in center
Hydrocarbon tail which anchors them to integral proteins in the thylakoids membrane
Absorb in red and blue region
Somites
separate, segmented blocks of cells on either side of the neural tube.
Muscle, cartilage, bone, and lower layer of the skin form from somites.
Neural crest cells are guided by somites to develop into peripheral nerves and other structures
Endotherm in heat
Sweat and vasal dilation in heat, metabolic reaction
Body temperature remains the same even though it is getting hotter
epididymis
- From the lumen of the seminiferous tubules, sperm move to the epididymis, a storage sac, where theymature.
- The epididymis connects to the urethra via the vas deferens
Mixed endocrine glands
Thymus, heart, stomach, kidneys, and small intestine
Stroma
Fluid in which grana are suspended in chloroplasts
Saccharides
Simple sugars, monomers of carbohydrates
Di- 2
Oligo- 3-20
Poly- hundreds of thousands
What Affects Hb-OxygenBinding?
Demands for oxygen changing depending on your state. (if sitting, cells in legs not picking up that much oxygen) so ATP production chants, and more ATP produced the more oxygen you get delivered. Waste products signify how much ATP you are making so your red blood cells know.
- BPG (2,3 Bisphosphoglyceric acid)- BPG by product of glycolysis- when increases, unload more oxygen.
- Temperature
- Acidity- lactic acid is byproduct of fermentation
Reversible inhibition
Inhibitor bonds noncovalently to the active site and prevents subtrate from binding- competitive inhibitor
When concentration of inhibitor is reduced it detaches from the active site
Electroreceptors
Perceives natural electrical stimuli
AP Step 6
Membrane hyperpolarizes and refractory period occurs
VGPC starts to close, but closes too slowly (around -80) so it dips below threshold
Allergy
Overactive or disproportionate immune system
Chemicals released
Anti histamine can be used (because histamine is the alarm)
Photophosphorylation
Light driven production of ATP
H+ transported via electron carriers across the thylakoid membrane from the stroma into the lumen, creating an electrochemical gradient
Complement system
Pore formation: First complement protein (inactive), cascade of protein activation in bacterial cell
Swelling: fluid rushes into cells
Lysis
Ingredients for photosynthesis
Co2 reduced to sugars that travel throughout the plant body
Water up taken by roots
Water and oxygen released
Pulmonary trunk
Takes deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the lungs
Very big, can see with naked eye.
Splits, and goes to two lungs
Transmural pressure
The pressure difference between two membranes
Calvin cycle stimulated by light
Protons pumped form stroma into thylakoids, increasing the pH which favors the activation of rubisco
Electron flow from photosystem one reduces disulfide bonds to activate calvin cycle enzymes
Induced fit
Enzyes change shape when they bind to the substrate
First trimester
embryo becomes a fetus
Heart begins to beat by week 4
Limbs form by week 8
The first trimester is the period during which the fetus is most susceptible to damage from radiation, drugs, chemicals, and agents that cause birth defects.
The hormone hCG (human chorionic gonadotropin) is released after implantation and is an early indicator of pregnancy
Ventricular diastole
heart is in relaxed state and ventricles are filling up its blood coming from the left and right atrium
Blood aided by gravity (80%) before atria even contracts
Aortic and pulmonary valves are closed
Bicuspid and tricuspid valves are open
Isotonic solution
Equal water and solute concentration
Lipids absorption
- Can easily permeate through the plasma membrane, tightly controlled so it doesn’t pass freely, bile salt packages glycerol and fatty acids into micelles - lipoprotein vehicle that is hydrophilic on the outside and hydrophobic on the inside, allows it to move into the small intestine cells
- Once micelles approach the apical side of the epithelial cell membrane, the glycerol and fatty acid passively diffuse into the cell
- The glycerol and fatty acid are then resynthesized into triglycerides and packaged into a lipoprotein known as chylomicrons- large vesicles that cannot fit into the capillaries, does not go into the blood immediately
- Chylomicrons are then exocytosed into the lymphatic system which has fluid in its own circulation and vessels that are more permeable, eventually drain into superior vena cava and ends up in circulation, liver sorts and ships these lipids
TSH
Thyroid stimulating hormone
Increases rate of metabolism
Target cell: thyroid gland
Fluid mosaic model
General structure of membranes
Phospholipids form a bilayer which is like a lakes which proteins float
Barriers to infection
Physical barriers
Chemical barriers
Reflexes
Red eye
A lot of light goes into eye because pupils cannot dilate in time, some light is refracted back
Parts of the respiratory system
Nasal/oral cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, primary/secondary/tertiary bronchus, bronchioles (if you don’t need a lot of oxygen bronchioles are slightly constricted), alveoli (site of exchange)
All made of cartilage up to the trachea
The immune system
Protects against infection and microbes
Isolates and removes non microbial foreign substances
Endotherm
All mammals and birds regulate body temperature by generating metabolic heatand/or preventing heat loss
Light independent reactions
“dark reactions”
Use ATP and NADH from light reactions plus CO2 to produce carbohydrates (because coenzymes ATP and NADH are not stored, need light for light reaction first)
Chlorophylls a and b
Ring structure with magnesium atom in center
Hydrocarbon tail which anchors them to integral proteins in the thylakoids membrane
Absorb in red and blue region
Two functions of DNA
Can reproduce itself (replication)
Can copy its information into RNA (transcription), RNA can specify a sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide (translation)
Nonspecific immunity
Prevention
Attack- if it gets in the circulatory system
Dunedin
Microtubules cross linked by the spokes of this motor protein
Changes shape when energy is released from ATP, move vesicles toward minus end
Ovarian cycle steps
1- primary oocytes (2n) are present in the ovary at birth
2- about once a month, between puberty and menopause, 6-12 primary oocytes begin to mature. A primary oocyte and it’s surrounding cells is called a follicle
3- the developing oocyte is nourished by follicle cells which also produce estrogen
4- after one week, usually only one primary oocyte begins to develop. A meiotic division just before ovulation creates the secondary oocyte (n). First polar body
5- at ovulation on the 14th day, the follicle ruptures and releases the egg which is caught by the Fallopian t uses
6- remaining follicle cells create the corpus lutenum, which produces progesterone and estrogen
7-if pregnancy does not occur, the corpus lutenum degenerates
How do atoms bond to form molecules
Reactive atoms have unpaired electrons in their outermost shell, atoms share, gain, or lose electrons
Z scheme
Model of noncyclic electron transport
Extracts electrons from water and transfers them to NADPH, using energy from photosynthesis one and two and resulting in ATP synthesis
Yields ATP, NADPH, and O2
Cyclic electron transport
Electron from excited P700 chlorophyll molecule n photosystem one cycles back to the same chlorophyll molecule
Involves a series of exergonic redox reactions, the released energy creates a proton gradient that is used to synthesize ATP
Barriers to infection
Physical barriers
Chemical barriers
Reflexes
How are neurons classified?
Function- sensory, interneurons, motor neurons
Structure- multipolar, bipolar, unipolar
Chemical equilibrium
Relative concentrations of A and B are such that forward and reverse reactions take place at the same rate
No further net change, but reactions continue
The further a reaction goes toward completion in order to reach equilibrium, the greater amount of free energy released
Double helix
Two strands of DNA molecule form this
All have this structure so diversity is in the sequence of base pairs, info encoded in this sequence
Parasite
Any organism that invades and lives by the expense of another body
Most are animals, either micro or macroscopic
Infects muscles and digestive system takes blood (muscles) and nutrients (liver)
CO2 fixation
CO2 is reduced to carbohydrates
Enzymes in the stroma use the energy in ATP and NADPH to reduce CO2
Because the ATP and NADPH are not “stockpiled,” these light independent reactions must also take place in light
Phagocytosis
Attatchment (opsonization)- Physically bind to pathogen
Internalization, turns into phagosome
Degradation- Fuses with lysosome and becomes phagolysosome, and after the digestive enzymes can be reused
Exocytosis- elimination of debris
Selective permeability
Membranes allow some substances to pass through but not others
Fatty acid
Non polar hydrocarbon with a polar carboxyl group
Ampipathic- opposing chemical properties, when carboxyl group ionizes it forms COO- and H+ and is hydrophilic while the other end is hydrophobic
Compliance
Ability to change volume and pressure
Balloon is like the lungs- highly compliant
Paper bag- not compliant
How do arteries move blood?
Arteries have high pressure, and blood aided by gravity so blood can reach far such as feet
Photophosphorylation
Light driven production of ATP
H+ transported via electron carriers across the thylakoid membrane from the stroma into the lumen, creating an electrochemical gradient
Blastocyst
When blastula reaches 16 to 32 cells, it divides into two groups:
- Inner cell mass: becomes the embryo
- Trophoblast: a sac that forms from the outer cells. Its cells secrete fluid and create the blastocoel, with the inner cell mass at one end. Embryo is now called a blastocyst.
Focusing on distant objects
Ciliary muscles are attached in a circular way, so when they are relaxed the lens is stretched
This pulls zonular fibers
Lens is elongated and flat to focus on distant objects
Barriers to infection
Physical barriers
Chemical barriers
Reflexes
Hypothalamus and anterior pituitary
• The hypothalamus controls the anterior pituitary by secreting hypophysiotropic hormones (releasing hormones)
– Dopamine (DA)
– Gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH)
– Thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH)
– Corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH)
– Growth hormone releasing hormone (GHRH)– Somatostatin (SS)
How do veins move blood?
low pressure because at the end of that circuit, hold the majority of blood, and if the blood is going back up it is working against gravity, dead on skeletal muscles
Skeletal muscle pump- veins are in between muscles and contraction pumps blood, valves in veins prevent blood from coming back down when muscles relax
Centrioles
Made of microtubules
Fund in organizing center near the cell nucleus
Similar to basal bodies, but in center of call and help in movement of chromosomes during cell division
Peristaltic contraction
Unidirectional movement of food through the stomach
Myeloid progenitor cells
Blood/platelets or immune cells produced
Types of immune cells:
Granular cells- neutrophils, mast cells
agranular cells- monocytes, macrophages,
GnRH
Gonadotropin releasing hormone
Stimulates release of FSH/LH
Cellular respiration
Production of ATP
Pressure change
Breathing associated with skeletal muscles that are constantly contracting and relaxing, gases are quantified by pressur
Atmospheric pressure (Patm)- pressure on the outside in the environment
Alveolar pressure (Palv)-pressure inside your lungs
Intrapleural pressure (Pip)- pressure in pleural sac, fills up with fluid that exerts pressure
Alveolar and interpleural pressure are constantly fluctuating because they depend on your state
Absorption spectrum
Plot of wavelengths absorbed by a pigment
Steps of fertilization
– The sperm and egg recognize each other.
– The sperm is activated so that it can gain access to the plasma membrane of the egg.
– The plasma membranes of the sperm and egg fuse.
– The egg blocks entry of additional sperm.
– The egg is stimulated to start development.
– The egg and sperm nuclei fuse
The female reproductive cycle actually consists of two linked cycles:
an ovarian cycle that produces eggs and hormones and a uterine cycle that prepares the endometrium for the arrival of a blastocyst
Glycoproteins
Carbohydrate and protein
Smooth ER
Ribosome free region
Mechanisms of peptide action
Peptide- hydrophillic, so receptor in membrane because it cannot permeate inside the cell
When receptor bound to hormone become activated, associates with/activates membrane communication protein called g protein made of multiple subunits
alpha subunit moves along membrane and activates adenylyl cyclase and coverts a molecule in into cyclic AMP
triggers a cascade of activation in proteins (protein kinase A activated, particular protein phosphorylates and changes shape protein shape and function altered, brings about cellular reponse)
A lot quicker but local changes
Mitochondrial matrix
Region enclosed by inner membrane
Krebs or citric acid cycle takes place here
epididymis
- From the lumen of the seminiferous tubules, sperm move to the epididymis, a storage sac, where theymature.
- The epididymis connects to the urethra via the vas deferens
Covalent bonds
Atoms share one or more electrons so that the outer shells are filled
Air composition
78.1% nitrogen (goes into lungs and leaves), 20.9% oxygen
Total atmospheric pressure= 760 mmHg (Pressure= concentration)- Patm = PN2 + PO2
Temperature and altitude changes atmospheric pressure
Partial pressure of N2 = 760 mmHg x 0.781 ~ 600 mmHg
Partial pressure of O2 = 760 mmHg x 0.21 ~ 160mmHg
We breathe very easily, so partial pressure in lungs should be lower, so process of diffusion is easy. 100 mm mercury
Action spectrum
Plot of biological activity as a function of exposure to varied wavelengths of light
Renal system
Proteins help make energy only in very bad situation, but protein metabolism generates urea which is toxic, excreted through renal system (kidneys)
Nuclear envelope
Formed by two lipid bilayers
Processes in Calvin Benson cycle
Fixation of CO2 by combination with RuBP (catalyzes by rubisco)
Conversion of fixed CO2 into carbohydrate G3P (using ATP and NADPH)
Regeneration of CO2 acceptor RuBP by ATP
Macromolecules crossing membranes
Too large to cross the membrane, so they can be taken in or secreted by membrane vesicles
uterine cycle
- The uterine cycle parallels the ovarian cycle and involves the buildup, then breakdown, of the endometrium.
- About five days into the ovarian cycle, the endometrium builds in preparation for the blastocyst.
- About five days after ovulation, the uterus is maximally prepared and stays that way for another nine days.
- If the blastocyst does not arrive by then, the endometrium breaks down and sloughs off during menstruation.
Morula
the embryo as a solid ball ofsmall cells. (from Latin for mulberry)
Thylakoids
The way internal membranes are arranged in chloroplasts, thylakoids make stacks called grana
These membranes contain chlorophyll and other pigments
Physical barriers
Skin- brick layers of cells, most pathogens can’t get through it, also produces a hard and fibrous protein called keratin. The closest layer to the surface has the highest amount of keratin- the outermost layer of skin is dead, it produced too much keratin to function
Fibrous layer of the eyes
Mucous membrane of the respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive systems, and ear- thick membrane that prevents pathogens from getting into the circulation
Cilia
Lobes of the brain
Frontal Parietal Temporal Occipital Cerebellum
AP step 1
At rest both VGSC and VGPC are closed, but you still have the leak channels and the pump
Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis
Hypothalamus- releases CRH, is always in control by measuring the amount of cortisol, if levels are below the set point, mechanism is turned on to increase cortisol
Anterior pituitary- acted on by hypothalamus, stimulates release of ACTH, travels in circulation
Adrenal cortex- stimulated to release another hormone called cortisol which helps our body deal with long term stress (external factor that causes major changes in your body) body thinks starvation is happening and there is not enough energy, so cortisols major function is to make sure your brain is well protected and that it had adequate amount of energy available
Increases plasma concentration of glucose (for the use of the brain, muscles can’t use it) fatty acids, and amino acids (for the muscles as an energy replacement for glucose)
Right and left ventricle
pumping chambers, physically contracting to make the blood exit (simultaneously in both circuits)
The immune system
Protects against infection and microbes
Isolates and removes non microbial foreign substances
Thylakoids
The way internal membranes are arranged in chloroplasts, thylakoids make stacks called grana
These membranes contain chlorophyll and other pigments
Polymers
Formed by covalent linkages of smaller units called monomers
Connection between lungs and circulatory system
Closed connection between heart and lungs because lungs are the site for oxygen intake, circulatory picks up oxygen from lungs and delivers it to cells with heart as intermediate
Pathogens
Parasite
Bacteria
Protist
Fungi
Virus
Compartmentalization in eukaryotic cells
Key to eukaryotic cell function
Each organelle/ compartment has specific role defined by chemical processes
Membranes surrounding these molecules keep away inappropriate molecules and also act as traffic regulators for raw materials into and out of the organelle
CO2 fixation
CO2 is reduced to carbohydrates
Enzymes in the stroma use the energy in ATP and NADPH to reduce CO2
Because the ATP and NADPH are not “stockpiled,” these light independent reactions must also take place in light
Spina bifida
failure of the neural tube to fuse in a posterior region dueto vitamin B deficiency
Compartmentalization in eukaryotic cells
Key to eukaryotic cell function
Each organelle/ compartment has specific role defined by chemical processes
Membranes surrounding these molecules keep away inappropriate molecules and also act as traffic regulators for raw materials into and out of the organelle
Pressure and Volume Change
During inspiration the volume of the lungs increases and the pressure decreases- atmospheric pressure is higher than alveolar pressure, and diffusion can occur
During expiration, the volume of the lungs decreases and the pressure increases- alveolar pressure becomes higher than atmospheric pressure- diffusion outwards
Blastomere
- Blastomeres become determined, or committed toa specific fate, at different times in different animals.
- Roundworm and clam blastomeres are already determined at the 8-cell stage.
- If one cell is removed, a portion of the embryo fails to develop normally. This is called mosaic development.
- Humans have regulative development. If some cells are lost during cleavage, other cells can compensate. For genetic testing in humans, one cell can be removed from a blastula following in vitro fertilization. If there are no mutations in the gene of interest, that blastula can be implanted
Accessory Digestive Organs
Food does not get to them but there is important secretion
• Salivary glands – Sublingual (under tongue), submandibular (under mandible), parotid (gland by ear • Pancreas • Liver • Gallbladder
Parts of the respiratory system
Nasal/oral cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, primary/secondary/tertiary bronchus, bronchioles (if you don’t need a lot of oxygen bronchioles are slightly constricted), alveoli (site of exchange)
All made of cartilage up to the trachea
Gated channels
Can be closed or open to ion passage, most ion channels are gated
Gate opens when protein is stimulated to change shape
Stimulus can be molecule (ligand gated) or electrical charge resulting from many ions (voltage gated)
Macrophages in alveoli
Ward against foreign bodies, get rid of debris
Absorption spectrum
Plot of wavelengths absorbed by a pigment
DNA bases
Adenine/guanine = purines
Cytocine/thymine = pyrimidines
A-T and C-G, bond by hydrogen bonding
Connect of artery to vein
Artery, arteriole, capillaries, venue, vein
The pancreas
- Mixed gland that contain both endocrine and exocrine tissue
- The exocrine tissue contains two types of cells
- Duct cells secrete NaHCO3 and Bicarbonate release to neutralize acid
- Acina cells secrete pancreatic juice- Mixture of enzymes that are produced from pancreas
Myeloid progenitor cells
Blood/platelets or immune cells produced
Types of immune cells:
Granular cells- neutrophils, mast cells
agranular cells- monocytes, macrophages,
Gestation
pregnancy
in humans is about 266 days and is divided into trimesters
Blastomere
- Blastomeres become determined, or committed toa specific fate, at different times in different animals.
- Roundworm and clam blastomeres are already determined at the 8-cell stage.
- If one cell is removed, a portion of the embryo fails to develop normally. This is called mosaic development.
- Humans have regulative development. If some cells are lost during cleavage, other cells can compensate. For genetic testing in humans, one cell can be removed from a blastula following in vitro fertilization. If there are no mutations in the gene of interest, that blastula can be implanted
Catalysts
Speed up rate of reaction
Not altered by the reaction
Most biological catalysts are enzymes that act as a framework in which reactions can take place
No catalyst maks a reaction occur that cannot otherwise occur
Oogenesis steps
Female germ cell (2n)
Mitosis
Oogonium (2n)
Mitosis
Primary oocyte (2n)
First meiotic division
Secondary oocyte (n) and first polar body
Second meiotic division, independent assortment of chromosomes
Ootid (n) and second polar body
Ovum (egg) (n), polar bodies degrade
Calvin cycle stimulated by light
Protons pumped form stroma into thylakoids, increasing the pH which favors the activation of rubisco
Electron flow from photosystem one reduces disulfide bonds to activate calvin cycle enzymes
Lymphoid tissues
Adenoids, tonsils, thymus, lymph noes, spleen, bone marrow, lymphatic vessels
Immune cells originate here, majorly from bone marrow
immune cells are scattered all over, but they are clustered in certain areas in case of infection
Fungi
Yeast is a unicellular form
Ex: athlete’s foot
Photosynthetic prokaryotes
Some bacteria, including Cyanobacteria can do carry on photosynthesis
Plasma membrane is unfolded and has chlorophyll
Neural pathway of hearing
Cochlear nerve fibers synapse on neurons in the cochlear nuclei in the medulla oblongata
Signal then sent to the thalamus (medial geniculate nucleus)
From thalamus, info travels to the auditory cortex of the temporal lobe
Most common phospholipids
Derived from glycerol except for sphingomylein
Two systems of electron transport
Non cyclic electron transport- produces NADPH and ATP
Cyclic electron transport- produces ATP only
- when you need more sugar you need more ATP than NADH, so cyclic transport is needed
The immune system
Protects against infection and microbes
Isolates and removes non microbial foreign substances
Non polar covalent bond
Share electrons equally
Immunization
Series of shots
MMR- immunization shot against meals, mumps, rubella
Small quantity of pathogens to build immune response, memory cells to speed up recovery next time
Ruben and kamen
Used radioisotope tracers (O18 and O16) to determine that water was the source of O2 released during photosynthesis rather than CO2
Glucose
Monosaccharide
All cells use it as an energy source
Exists most often in a ring as alpha or beta glucose depending on position of the aldehyde group (can also be found in a chain)
Kinesin
Motor protein, moves toward plus end
CO2 fixation
CO2 is reduced to carbohydrates
Enzymes in the stroma use the energy in ATP and NADPH to reduce CO2
Because the ATP and NADPH are not “stockpiled,” these light independent reactions must also take place in light
Lungs and the mechanisms of the chest
Easy, effortless to breath because of the mechanics of the lungs- always slightly inflated to make inspiration easier
Lungs attached to chest wall and inner layer of your rib cage by very thin set of membranes called a pleural sac
Ribs protect your lungs and work in synchrony with them, chest expands and increase in volume along with your lungs
The endocrine system
- Major communication system
- Consists of many glands located throughout the body
- Glands secrete hormones that act as chemical messengers
- Uses the blood as a medium to transport the hormones
- Each hormone has specific target cells
- Hormonal mechanisms can help us maintain homeostasis
The liver
• Hepatocytes of the liver release bile salts that functions in fat emulsification, hydrophobic lipids aggregate together, lipase cannot do its function without bile to emulsify the fat
– The break down of large fat droplets into smaller ones
• Bile salts are stored in the gall bladder
Action spectrum
Plot of biological activity as a function of exposure to varied wavelengths of light
Vacuoles
In plant and protist cells
Store waste products and toxic compounds; some may deter herbivores
Provides structure for plant cells, water enters by osmosis and creates turbot pressure
Stores anthocyanins(pigment) in flowers/fruit to attract pollinators
Digestive enzymes to hydrolyze stored food for early growth
Amniocentesis
extraction of amnioticfluid with a needle, after the fourteenth week of pregnancy
Phagocytic cell migration
- The cytokines released by macrophages signal the endothelial cells to express selectin
- Margination occurs- dock and fuse with membrane, carbohydrate ligands on macrophages bind to selectin in blood vessel, move in blood vessel by rolling
- Phagocytic cells produce integrin on their membrane
- Stronger attachment occurs- immune cells are allowed to slow down and exit
- Phagocytic cells begin to move from the blood to the infected area in a process known as diapedisis
- Once in the interstitial fluid, phagocytic cells are attracted to the site of injury by chemotaxins- tell phagocytic cells exactly where to go
Lymphoid progenitor cells
Form into B lymphocytes, T lymphocytes
Nonspecific immunity
Prevention
Attack- if it gets in the circulatory system
Turgor pressure
Plant cells with rigid walls build up internal pressure that keeps more water from entering
Inner cell mass
• The inner cell mass of the blastocyst splits into an epiblast and hypoblast with a fluid-filled cavity in
between (just like the reptilian and avian gastrula).
- The embryo forms from the epiblast.
- The epiblast also splits off a layer of cells that form the amnion. The amnion grows around the developing embryo.
- The hypoblast cells extend to form the chorion. Thechorion and other tissues produce the placenta.
- The epiblast produces the amnion. Allantoic tissues form the umbilical cord.
Nucleus
Contains most of the cells DNA and is the site of DNA duplication to support cell reproduction
Plays role in DNA control of cell activities
Flagella
Come in ones and twos, longer than cilia
Nodes of ranvier
Gaps in myelin sheaths along the axon
Protist
Uni or multicellular, contaminate lakes and drinking water to invade host
Monosaccharide absorption
- Glucose and galactose are absorbed by secondary active transport, takes glucose independent of concentration from the lumen to the inside of the epithelial cells
- They leave the cells into the plasma (blood vessels)via carrier proteins passively by facilitated diffusion, majority stored in liver and muscles
Mast cells
- Mast cells are found throughout connective tissues (not found in blood)
- They release histamine and other chemicals involved in inflammation
Microcirculation
Traveling of arterioles to capillaries to venules
Cells are taking the oxygen and glucose and dumping co2 by process of diffusion
Gastrulation
Gastrulation is the process in which a blastulais transformed into an embryo with three
tissue layers and body axes
Extracellular destruction: complement
• Membrane Attack Complex (MAC)
– Embeds itself in the microbe membrane, forming pores
– Water and salt enter the microbe
Proteins released by liver to do the job: complement system
Nucleus
Contains most of the cells DNA and is the site of DNA duplication to support cell reproduction
Plays role in DNA control of cell activities
Myeloid progenitor cells
Blood/platelets or immune cells produced
Types of immune cells:
Granular cells- neutrophils, mast cells
agranular cells- monocytes, macrophages,
Air composition
78.1% nitrogen (goes into lungs and leaves), 20.9% oxygen
Total atmospheric pressure= 760 mmHg (Pressure= concentration)- Patm = PN2 + PO2
Temperature and altitude changes atmospheric pressure
Partial pressure of N2 = 760 mmHg x 0.781 ~ 600 mmHg
Partial pressure of O2 = 760 mmHg x 0.21 ~ 160mmHg
We breathe very easily, so partial pressure in lungs should be lower, so process of diffusion is easy. 100 mm mercury
Pacemaker cells
- Sinoatrial node (SA) located in the right atrium
- Atrioventricular node (AV) located on the interatrial septum
- Bundle of His: located on the interventicular septum
- Bundle branches
- Purkinje fibers: located on the ventricular walls
Gestation
pregnancy
in humans is about 266 days and is divided into trimesters
Light
A form of electromagnetic radiation
Propagated as waves, energy of light is inversely proportional to wavelength (must be appropriate wavelength to be absorbed by receptive molecules
Light also behaves as particles called photons, plants absorb these
Tertiary structure
Many bonds: Covalent disulfide bridges Hydrophobic side chain interactions Van der waals forces Ionic bonds Hydrogen bonds
Protist
Uni or multicellular, contaminate lakes and drinking water to invade host
Nonspecific Immune response/inflammation
• Occurs through cut or injury to the skin
• Sequence of events ensue to protect the body against infection
– Phagocytosis and recruitment
– Vasodilation and increase in permeability
– Phagocytic cells migration
– Tissue repair
Isotonic solution
Equal water and solute concentration
Macromolecules
Giant polymers, molecular weight usually greater than 1000 daltons
All form through condensation reactions where water is removed during bond formation
Control of breathing
Voluntary until it becomes physiologically dangerous, your brain will force you to breathe.
• Inspiration is initiated by stimulating the respiratory muscles
– Diaphragm and external intercostals
• The stimulation is initiated in the medullary centers and the pons
Medulla oblongata sends signal to spinal cord, phrenic nerve sends action potential to diaphragm. 100% controlled by brain unless you voluntarily change it, stimulation always occurring. Neurons called central patter generator, send action potentials then they stop, perfectly synced on/off mechanism
Pinocytosis
“cell drinking”
Vesicles for,s to bring small dissolved substances or fluids into a cell, much smaller vesicles than in phagocytosis
Constant in endothelial cells
Movement from capillaries into interstitial fluid
Small things such as ions, glucose, amino acids can move through slits
Small proteins need to move by transcytosis (endo and exo cytosis)
Large proteins cannot get through
Accommodation
Changing the shape of the lens
Ciliary muscles allow objects to be focused onto the retina no matter how near or distant they are, light rays need to fall on the retina
Lens can change shape
Energy transfer and electron transport
Light energy absorbed by antenna chlorophylls, and passed on to reaction center
Molecule goes to excited state
Energized electron from chlorophyll molecules passed to electron acceptor to reduce it
Phagocytosis & Recruitment
- Macrophages in the nearby tissue detect bacteria using receptor proteins to engulf them
- Macrophages release cytokines- chemicals for recruitment
- Mast cells release histamine- causes vasodilation
- Injured cells release chemotaxins- chemo attractants to attract immune cells
Microbes
Harmful substances, living or dead
Spina bifida
failure of the neural tube to fuse in a posterior region dueto vitamin B deficiency
Hypertonic solution
Higher solute concentration
Specific Recognition Between Sperm and Egg
- Specific recognition molecules mediate interactions between sperm and eggs.
- This ensures that activities of the sperm are directed toward eggs and not other cells and prevents eggs from being fertilized by sperm of the wrong species.
- This latter function is particularly importantin aquatic species, such as sea urchins, that release sperm and eggs into the surrounding water.
Functions of the nervous system
Recieves information, processes information, outputs information
Arrangement of microtubules in flagella and cilia
9+2 array- 9 pairs and 2 individual microtubules in center
At the base of flagella and cilia is the nasal body, the 9 rings extend there
Electron microscope
Use electromagnets to focus an electron beam, wavelength is much shorter than light so much higher resolution .5 nm
Limit of resolution
.61 x wavelength / NA
NA= refractive index x sine of angle of most oblique ray
Oogenesis
- Oogenesis produces eggs.
- Individual egg maturation can be arrested for months, or for as long as 10 (puberty) to 50 (menopause) years in humans!
- During this phase, the primary oocyte grows and addsto its energy, ribosome, and organelle stores. This tpermits the resulting embryo to have nourishment.
Proteins
Polymers of amino acids, each has different AA composition and order
Folding is crucial to the function of a protein, influenced by the AA sequence
Where are these microorganisms?
They like moisture, food particles, want to get in blood vessels (from there they can travel all over the body)
Alveolar type I cells
form the wall of the alveoli
Transmural pressure
The pressure difference between two membranes
Boyle’s law
Pressure and volume are inversely proportiona
Gases in a container, when volume decreased, pressure increases due to collision of gas molecules and now these gas molecules are confined to a smaller place, so more bombardment
Lungs are always changing in volume so the pressure changes as well with inspiration and expiration
B lymphocytes
Transform into plasma cells and release antibodies into the circulation, which are proteins that tag the pathogens to signal the immune cells to destroy it
Form memory cells- every pathogen has specific surface receptors (signature), they can remember for next time how to fight the infection
Path of the egg
the mature egg is released into the body cavity and is swept into the end of the oviduct (Fallopian tube) by an undulating fringe of tissue (Fertilization takes place in the oviduct and, in humans, the second meiotic division takes place)
Cilia lining the oviduct propel the fertilized or unfertilized egg toward the uterus, a muscular, thick-walled cavity
The opening at the bottom of the uterus is the cervix,which leads into the vagina
Mode of travel of peptides and steroids
Peptides- travel easy in blood because water soluble
Lipids- mostly water so need transport proteins to shield them from hydrophillicity of blood because not water soluble
Amino acids
Have carbonyl and amino groups with a hydrogen and an R group
function as an acid and base
R group make differences in amino acids
Spontaneous reaction
Goes more than halfway to completion without input of energy
Exergonic, negative delta G
Release energy in form of heat, light, etc
Reverse process must be endergonic
Amniocentesis
extraction of amnioticfluid with a needle, after the fourteenth week of pregnancy
Cristae
Folds of the inner membrane give rise to these
Contains large protein molecules used in cellular respiration
Lymphoid tissues
Adenoids, tonsils, thymus, lymph noes, spleen, bone marrow, lymphatic vessels
Immune cells originate here, majorly from bone marrow
immune cells are scattered all over, but they are clustered in certain areas in case of infection
Organization of the immune system
Nonspecific immune response- protects against foreign substances without having to recognize their identity
Specific immune response- highly specific, usually a major problem that your body is really trying to fight
Twinning
- If blastomeres separate into two groups, each can produce an embryo.
- Monozygotic twins come from the same zygote and are identical.
- Nonidentical twins are from two eggs fertilized by two sperm.
Rubisco
Enzyme that catalyzes fixation of CO2
Ribosome bisphosphate carboxylase/
Most abundant protein in the world, 50% of the protein in a leaf
Limit of resolution
.61 x wavelength / NA
NA= refractive index x sine of angle of most oblique ray
Signaling events
Graded potential- from dendrites into the cell body, minor change in electrical activity
Action potential- at axon hillock and axon
Propagation- traveling of electron activity
Neurotransmitter release
Occipital lobe
Visual cortex
Process visual information
RNA bases
Uracil instead of thymine
Single stranded but complementary base pairing occurs in the structure of some types of RNA
Pathogens
Parasite
Bacteria
Protist
Fungi
Virus
Entry of Sperm into the Egg
- In animals with internal fertilization, egg–sperm recognition mechanisms also exist.
- In the female reproductive tract, mammalian sperm are metabolically activated and attracted to the egg in the oviduct, but also aided in their movement by muscular contractions.
- The mammalian egg is surrounded by a thick layer called the cumulus. Beneath that is a protein envelope called the zona pellucida.
- A species-specific glycoprotein in the zona pellucida binds to the head of the sperm.
- The acrosomal reaction is triggered, releasing acrosomal enzymes that digest a path through the zona pellucida
Antenna systems
Pigments arranged in these
Also called light harvesting complexes
Optimal conditions for enzymes
pH and temperature
FSH/LH
Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) & luteinizing hormone (LH)
Produces gametes and sex hormones
Target organs: testes or ovaries
The Cardiovascular System
A closed system (blood always contained in blood vessels, always circulating) that consists of the heart, blood vessels, and the blood
– The heart pumps blood
– Blood vessels provide the path for the blood to travel (like a freeway)
– Blood carries nutrients and picks up wastes
Mechanisms of steroids action on target cells
Every cell exposed to this hormone, and steroid cell is hydrophobic so can interact with every cell but not every cell has receptor
Exits blood vessel to get to the target cell
Steroid permeates through cell membrane and forms complex called hormone receptor complex in nucleus, bind to a section of DNA gene called hormone response element that activates the gene to start gene expression
Messenger RNA made and goes to the cell cytosol
Synthesizes protien and makes changes inside the cell and causes cellular response
Slow process but major changes
Accessory pigments
Transfer energy absorbed to chorophylls
Carotenoids and phycobilins
Absorb intermediate between red and blue
third trimester
internal organs mature and organ systems begin to function
The last organs to mature before birthare the lungs
Alveolar type I cells
form the wall of the alveoli
Carotenoids
Light-absorbing pigments
Source of vitamin A
Fluorescence
When a pigment returns to ground state some of the energy may be given off as heat and some as fluorescence
Fluorescence has longer wavelengths and less energy than the absorbed light energy
No chemical work done
If pigment can pass the energy to another molecule, there’s no fluorescence, the energy can be passed to a reaction center where it is converted to chemical energy
Photosynthesis
“synthesis from light”
Plants take in CO2, produce carbohydrates, and release O2 and water
Light is required
6CO2 + 12H2O–> C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O
Chloroplasts
Sites where photosynthesis occurs, one type of plastid
Surrounded by two layers and have interal membrane system
Cyclic electron transport
Electron from excited P700 chlorophyll molecule n photosystem one cycles back to the same chlorophyll molecule
Involves a series of exergonic redox reactions, the released energy creates a proton gradient that is used to synthesize ATP
Pigments
Molecules that absorb specific wavelengths in the visible range of the spectrum
Photons can have a wide range of wavelengths and energy levels
Gastrulation
Gastrulation is the process in which a blastulais transformed into an embryo with three
tissue layers and body axes
Organization of the immune system
Nonspecific immune response- protects against foreign substances without having to recognize their identity
Specific immune response- highly specific, usually a major problem that your body is really trying to fight
Where Does Fertilization Take Place?
- Fertilization in mammals occurs in the upper oviduct; cleavage occurs as the zygote travels down the oviduct.
- When the blastocyst arrives in the uterus, the trophoblast adheres to the uterine wall (the endometrium), which begins the process of implantation.
- Early implantation in the oviduct wall is prevented by the zona pellucida. Inadvertent implantationcauses a tubal pregnancy, which is very dangerous.
- In the uterus, the blastocyst hatches out of the zona pellucida, and implantation can occur.
- Stimulated by estrogen, the endometrium develops new blood vessels to cradle the blastocyst.
- The blastocyst burrows in (implantation), interacting with the wall to form the placenta.
Ruben and kamen
Used radioisotope tracers (O18 and O16) to determine that water was the source of O2 released during photosynthesis rather than CO2
Lymphoid progenitor cells
Form into B lymphocytes, T lymphocytes
Photosystem 2
Light energy oxidizes water to oxygen, H+, and electrons
Reaction center has chlorophyll a molecules: P680 absorbs at 680 nm (more energetic than P700)
Excited first
Premature Contractions and Delivery
- A positive feedback loop develops (mechanical stimuli increase the release of oxytocin, and vice versa), and this converts Braxton-Hicks contractions into stronger labor contractions.
- In the early stage of labor, contractions gradually become more frequent and intense until they haveopened the cervix.
- In the delivery stage, the baby’s head moves into the vagina and becomes visible from the outside.
- The usual head-down position of the baby comes about during the seventh month of pregnancy.
Parasite
Any organism that invades and lives by the expense of another body
Most are animals, either micro or macroscopic
Infects muscles and digestive system takes blood (muscles) and nutrients (liver)
Mitochondrial matrix
Region enclosed by inner membrane
Krebs or citric acid cycle takes place here
Complement system
Pore formation: First complement protein (inactive), cascade of protein activation in bacterial cell
Swelling: fluid rushes into cells
Lysis
Somites
separate, segmented blocks of cells on either side of the neural tube.
Muscle, cartilage, bone, and lower layer of the skin form from somites.
Neural crest cells are guided by somites to develop into peripheral nerves and other structures
Other roles for nucleotides
ATP- energy transducer in biochemical reactions
GTP- energy source in protein synthesis
cAMP- essential to the action of hormones and transmission of information in the nervous system
Adenohypophysis
Anterior pituitary gland
made of secretory glands, non neuronal, makes and releases own hormones. No neuronal connects on to hypothalamus
• Releases six peptide hormones, all made of peptides
– Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) & luteinizing hormone (LH)
– Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)
– Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)– Prolactin
– Growth hormone (GH)
Where does calcium come from?
Important ion, numerous functions
High intercellular level can be toxic and therefore must be maintained at a very low level inside the cell (10^-9 M)
Stored in muscle cells, no reliance on extracellular calcium concentration
DNA replication
Depends on base pairing, as does transcription
Involves entire molecule only small sections of DNA are transcribed into RNA
third trimester
internal organs mature and organ systems begin to function
The last organs to mature before birthare the lungs
Correlation of Electrocardiogram graph and heart activities
Beginning of P wave- SA Node, AV
Middle to end of P wave- AV Nodal delay
Between P wave and QRS- Signals travel through bundle of his reaching the apex
QRS complex- pukinje fibers
Within ventricles, heart contracts from bottom to top, all the blood comes out, none remains below
Boyle’s law
Pressure and volume are inversely proportiona
Gases in a container, when volume decreased, pressure increases due to collision of gas molecules and now these gas molecules are confined to a smaller place, so more bombardment
Lungs are always changing in volume so the pressure changes as well with inspiration and expiration
Light microscopes
Glass lenses focus visible light, max resolution of .2 um
Retina
Photoreceptors recover light and end it to the brain through optic nerve
Contains fovea centralis( photoreceptors scattered all of retina, but these are the places where they have the guest concentrate on, called high visual acuity)
Types of cells:
ganglion- long axons that send signals to the brain
Amacrine- support cells, strengthen synapses, between ganglion and bipolar
bipolar- form synapses with rods and cones
horizontal- support cells, strengthen synapses, between photoreceptors and bipolar cells
photoreceptors (rods and cones)- when stimulated, electrical activity begins
When light first hits ganglion and bipolar cells nothing happens because they are not equipped to react to light,
How do gases cross the lung/bloodmedia?
Process of diffusion.
Alveoli made of single layered cells, blood capillaries only have tunica intima and some connective tissue, so very thin, and easy process of diffusion
Both the capillaries and the alveoli are lined with simple squamous epithelium
Entry of Sperm into the Egg
- In animals with internal fertilization, egg–sperm recognition mechanisms also exist.
- In the female reproductive tract, mammalian sperm are metabolically activated and attracted to the egg in the oviduct, but also aided in their movement by muscular contractions.
- The mammalian egg is surrounded by a thick layer called the cumulus. Beneath that is a protein envelope called the zona pellucida.
- A species-specific glycoprotein in the zona pellucida binds to the head of the sperm.
- The acrosomal reaction is triggered, releasing acrosomal enzymes that digest a path through the zona pellucida
Frontal lobe
Motor functions, movement of muscles
Premotor cortex- planning
Primary motor cortex- initiates motor movements (motor homunculus), bottom up
Prefrontal association cortex- complex tasks and cognitive functions
Broca’s area- speech production
Axon terminals
Axon collaterals terminate in many axon terminals
Contain neurotransmitter filled vesicles
Electrical signal changes to chemical signal
How do gases cross the lung/bloodmedia?
Process of diffusion.
Alveoli made of single layered cells, blood capillaries only have tunica intima and some connective tissue, so very thin, and easy process of diffusion
Both the capillaries and the alveoli are lined with simple squamous epithelium
What causes binding to occur?
ATP and calcium
Ossicles
3 small bones, malleus, incus, and stapes(attatched to oval window)
Intermediate filaments
Fund in multicellular organisms, form rope like structures in cells
Stabilize cell strucuture and resist tension
Can maintain the positions of organelles
Lamins provide structural support to the nuclear membrane
Peptide linkage
Condensation reactions between amino group of one amino acid and the carboxyl group of another
Synthesizes proteins
Cell recognition and adhesion
Sponge cells- separation and come back together
Glycoproteins are involved in cell recognition and binding
Homotypic binding- same molecule sticks out from both cells and forms a bond
Heterotypic binding- cells have different proteins
Macrophages in alveoli
Ward against foreign bodies, get rid of debris
Gap junctions in cardiac muscles
protein ensures exchange of material between cells, important in heart because they ensure synchrony in contraction by spreading electrical activities
(ex all cells in atria contract at the same time, in ventricles those cells contract simultaneously to ensure efficiency)
Blastomere
- Blastomeres become determined, or committed toa specific fate, at different times in different animals.
- Roundworm and clam blastomeres are already determined at the 8-cell stage.
- If one cell is removed, a portion of the embryo fails to develop normally. This is called mosaic development.
- Humans have regulative development. If some cells are lost during cleavage, other cells can compensate. For genetic testing in humans, one cell can be removed from a blastula following in vitro fertilization. If there are no mutations in the gene of interest, that blastula can be implanted
Tunica externa
Connective tissue with elastic and collagen fibers
Substrates
Reactants in a catalytic reactions
Morula
the embryo as a solid ball ofsmall cells. (from Latin for mulberry)
AP Step 2
Threshold is reached and the VGSC are triggered to open while the VGPC are still closed- they are slower
Male genitalia
Penis and scrotum
Entry of Sperm into the Egg
- In animals with internal fertilization, egg–sperm recognition mechanisms also exist.
- In the female reproductive tract, mammalian sperm are metabolically activated and attracted to the egg in the oviduct, but also aided in their movement by muscular contractions.
- The mammalian egg is surrounded by a thick layer called the cumulus. Beneath that is a protein envelope called the zona pellucida.
- A species-specific glycoprotein in the zona pellucida binds to the head of the sperm.
- The acrosomal reaction is triggered, releasing acrosomal enzymes that digest a path through the zona pellucida
Phagocytosis
Attatchment (opsonization)- Physically bind to pathogen
Internalization, turns into phagosome
Degradation- Fuses with lysosome and becomes phagolysosome, and after the digestive enzymes can be reused
Exocytosis- elimination of debris
Non competitive inhibitors
Bind to enzyme at a different site than the active site
Enzyme changes shape and alters the active site
Stoma
Mouth of plant
Co2 enters and O2/water exit through these pores
Cleavage
a rapid series of celldivision, but no cell growth
In mammals cleavage is rotational:
First cell division is parallel to the animal–vegetal axis; yields two blastomeres.
In second division two blastomeres divide at right angles to each other;one is parallel to the axis and the other is perpendicular to it. This pattern of division is unique to mammals with placentas.
Mitochondrial matrix
Region enclosed by inner membrane
Krebs or citric acid cycle takes place here
Phospholipid belayer
Hydrophobic tails line up and the hydrophilic heads face outward
trophoblast
- In mammals, the first extraembryonic membrane to form is the trophoblast.
- When the blastocyst hatches from the zona pellucida, the trophoblast cells attach to the uterine wall, This is the beginning of implantation.
- The trophoblast becomes part of the uterine wall, and sends out villi to increase surface area and contact with maternal blood.
Extensive ER membrane system
Cells specialized for synthesizing proteins have these
Nonspecific immunity
Prevention
Attack- if it gets in the circulatory system
Fertilization
Fertilization is the union of haploid sperm and haploid egg to produce a single diploid cell, the zygote
Morula
the embryo as a solid ball ofsmall cells. (from Latin for mulberry)
Bacteria
Unicellular prokaryotes
Rubisco
Enzyme that catalyzes fixation of CO2
Ribosome bisphosphate carboxylase/
Most abundant protein in the world, 50% of the protein in a leaf
Adenohypophysis
Anterior pituitary gland
made of secretory glands, non neuronal, makes and releases own hormones. No neuronal connects on to hypothalamus
• Releases six peptide hormones, all made of peptides
– Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) & luteinizing hormone (LH)
– Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)
– Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)– Prolactin
– Growth hormone (GH)
Light reactions
Convert light energy to chemical energy as ATP and NADH
When a pigment molecule absorbs a photon (excited state) the energy can be-
Released as heat and/or light
Transferred to another molecule
Used for a chemical reaction
Pigments
Molecules that absorb specific wavelengths in the visible range of the spectrum
Photons can have a wide range of wavelengths and energy levels
Protist
Uni or multicellular, contaminate lakes and drinking water to invade host
Ester linkage
Carboxyl bind with hydroxyls of glycerol
Channel proteins
Central pore lined with amino acids
Integral membrane proteins
Hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions
Sme extend across the lipid bilayer and others are partially embedded
Complement system
Pore formation: First complement protein (inactive), cascade of protein activation in bacterial cell
Swelling: fluid rushes into cells
Lysis
Air composition
78.1% nitrogen (goes into lungs and leaves), 20.9% oxygen
Total atmospheric pressure= 760 mmHg (Pressure= concentration)- Patm = PN2 + PO2
Temperature and altitude changes atmospheric pressure
Partial pressure of N2 = 760 mmHg x 0.781 ~ 600 mmHg
Partial pressure of O2 = 760 mmHg x 0.21 ~ 160mmHg
We breathe very easily, so partial pressure in lungs should be lower, so process of diffusion is easy. 100 mm mercury
AP Step 7
Both voltage gated channels are closed and membrane comes back to resting potential
How does electronegativity determine the structure of water?
O is more electronegative than H, so the O has a more negative charge
Muscles of Expiration
• Passive expiration
– Elastic recoil of the lungs
• Active expiration
– Contraction of internal intercostals
– Contraction of abdominal muscles (causesdiaphragm to be pushed up)
Fluid mosaic model
General structure of membranes
Phospholipids form a bilayer which is like a lakes which proteins float
Z scheme
Model of noncyclic electron transport
Extracts electrons from water and transfers them to NADPH, using energy from photosynthesis one and two and resulting in ATP synthesis
Yields ATP, NADPH, and O2
Fungi
Yeast is a unicellular form
Ex: athlete’s foot
ejaculation
(orgasm), contractions of the muscles at the base of the penis force semen throughthe urethra and out of the penis
After ejaculation, the autonomic nervous system causes constriction of the vessels in the penis and thus a decrease in blood pressure in the erectile tissue; the compression of blood vessels leaving the penis is relieved and the erection declines
Radioisotopes after world war II
Became readily available to cell biologists to study cell metabolism
Ex: tritium(3H) emits beta particle when one extra neutron changes into a proton
Autoradiography- radioisotopes can trace the fate of molecules in cells
Prokaryotes
No nucleus or other membrane enclosed compartments
Lack distinct organelles
Functions of the Respiratory System
- Provides oxygen
- Eliminates carbon dioxide
- Regulates pH level- More co2 you get rid of the more hydrogen ions you get rid of
- Speech production
- Defense against foreign bodies- non specific immunity
Lysosomes
Vesicles containing digestive enzymes that come in part from the Golgi
Sites for breakdown of food and foreign material brought into the cell by phagocytosis
Detection of spent cellular components- autophagy- cell components are frequently destroyed and replaced with new ones
Aorta
Delivers oxygenated blood from left ventricle to body
Biggest blood vessel in body
Second trimester
limbs elongate and facial features form
Processes of the Digestive
- Motility- mixing of food
- Secretion- enzymes being released, produced in digestive system cells, ingredient sometimes produced in blood.
- Digestion- chemical breakdown of covalent bonds
- Absorption- Broken down into individual units, can be absorbed, accessible to cells
Immunization
Series of shots
MMR- immunization shot against meals, mumps, rubella
Small quantity of pathogens to build immune response, memory cells to speed up recovery next time
Pathogens
Parasite
Bacteria
Protist
Fungi
Virus
Steps in neurulation
- The ectoderm over the notochord thickens and forms the neural plate.
- Edges of the neural plate fold and a deep groove forms.
- The folds fuse, forming the neural tube and a layer of ectoderm, The anterior end of the neural tube becomes the brain, the rest becomes the spinal cord
Pressure and Volume Change
During inspiration the volume of the lungs increases and the pressure decreases- atmospheric pressure is higher than alveolar pressure, and diffusion can occur
During expiration, the volume of the lungs decreases and the pressure increases- alveolar pressure becomes higher than atmospheric pressure- diffusion outwards
Magnetoreceptors
Responds to earths magnetic field
Ex: birds in migration
Photosynthetic prokaryotes
Some bacteria, including Cyanobacteria can do carry on photosynthesis
Plasma membrane is unfolded and has chlorophyll
Two functions of DNA
Can reproduce itself (replication)
Can copy its information into RNA (transcription), RNA can specify a sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide (translation)
Golgi apparatus
Has flattened membrane sacs and small membrane enclosed vesicles
Muscles of Expiration
• Passive expiration
– Elastic recoil of the lungs
• Active expiration
– Contraction of internal intercostals
– Contraction of abdominal muscles (causesdiaphragm to be pushed up)
Action spectrum
Plot of biological activity as a function of exposure to varied wavelengths of light
Proteins and lipids in the membrane interacting
Independent, only interact noncovalently
Some membrane proteins have fatty acids or other lipid groups covalently attached, called anchored membrane proteins
Densities of H2O at various states
Water>ice>vapor
Lymphoid progenitor cells
Form into B lymphocytes, T lymphocytes
Penis
The penis is a tubular shaft, the tip of which has sensitive skin called the glans penis that is very responsive to sexual stimulation
PRL
Prolactin
Hormone responsible for milk production
Target cell: mammary glands
Gastrulation
Gastrulation is the process in which a blastulais transformed into an embryo with three
tissue layers and body axes
Nucleolus
Specialized region inside the nucleus where ribosomes are initially assembled
Cellular respiration
Production of ATP
Rate of reactions
Rate of uncalled reaction is proportional to concentration of reactants
Rate of catalyzed reaction is proportional to reactants until the enzyme is saturated, and then the rate levels off
Active site
Substrate molecules bind here on the enzyme
Small region of whole protein
Flagella
Locomotory structures shaped like corkscrew
Some prokaryotes have this
Energy transfer and electron transport
Light energy absorbed by antenna chlorophylls, and passed on to reaction center
Molecule goes to excited state
Energized electron from chlorophyll molecules passed to electron acceptor to reduce it
Calvin and benson
Used 14C radioisotope to determine the sequence of reactions in CO2 fixation
Exposed chlorella to 14CO2 then extracted the organic compounds and separated them by paper chromatography
3 second exposure of chlorella to 14CO2 revealed that the first compound to be formed is 3PG, a 3 carbon sugar phosphate
Light
A form of electromagnetic radiation
Propagated as waves, energy of light is inversely proportional to wavelength (must be appropriate wavelength to be absorbed by receptive molecules
Light also behaves as particles called photons, plants absorb these
How do gases cross the lung/bloodmedia?
Process of diffusion.
Alveoli made of single layered cells, blood capillaries only have tunica intima and some connective tissue, so very thin, and easy process of diffusion
Both the capillaries and the alveoli are lined with simple squamous epithelium
Vasodilation & Increased Permeability
• Histamine causes vasodilation
– increases diameter, Increase in blood flow to infected area
– Redness occurs
– Increase delivery of proteins
– Edema occurs- swelling, fluid from blood cells into interstitial tissue
- increased permeability- proteins gain entry from blood to interstitial fluid
- objective- get more immune cells
Double helix
Two strands of DNA molecule form this
All have this structure so diversity is in the sequence of base pairs, info encoded in this sequence
Sertoli cells
• The germ cells are protected from noxioussubstances in the blood by Sertoli cells, which also provide nutrients for the developing sperm and are involved in the hormonal control of spermatogenesis.
Tetanus
Clostridium tetani- anaerobic bacteria, can still survive in a wound even if there is poor circulation because it needs no oxygen, muscles lock due to overstimulation
Bacteria releases a toxin that travels to the CNS (BBB can usually prevent toxins from reaching the brain but not these), and then it fucks with inhibitory activity allowing neurotransmitters to be available for long periods of time and not allowing them to be broken down, hyperexcitability of muscles
Sharp object penetrating skin
Easiest way to get infected by a pathogen
Some cells are already in the vicinity, they destroy and then call for back up
Different amino acids
5 charged hydrophilic side chains
5 polar uncharged side chains
7 non polar hydrophobic side chains
Cysteine- has terminal sulfhydryl that allows for disulfide bonding
Glycine- H as R group
Proline- modified amino group, forms a ring with R group
Somites
separate, segmented blocks of cells on either side of the neural tube.
Muscle, cartilage, bone, and lower layer of the skin form from somites.
Neural crest cells are guided by somites to develop into peripheral nerves and other structures
Pinocytosis
“cell drinking”
Vesicles for,s to bring small dissolved substances or fluids into a cell, much smaller vesicles than in phagocytosis
Constant in endothelial cells
Inspiration
Diaphragm- Lungs physically sit on diaphragm, main muscle for respiration, pushes down during inspiration
External intercostal muscles- contact and push down
Two systems related to muscles in heart
Within a heartbeat, it pumps both ways simultaneously, pulmonary circuit doesn’t require as much work as systemic, so left side has more muscle thickness because that is where it pumps the blood to the rest of the body
How is Carbon Dioxide Transported?
5-6% dissolved in plasma
5-8% bind to hemoglobin at a different binding site than oxygen
86-90% converted to hydrogen ions and bicarbonate by enzyme called carbonic anhydrase. When co2 goes up hydrogen ions go up and ph decreases, and vice versa. Want ph of 7.4
prostate gland
produces the thin, milky fluid thatmakes up the rest of the volume of semen
Prostate fluid makes the uterine environment morehospitable to sperm and converts the semen, by
enzyme action on the fibrinogen, into a gelatinous
mass
The large intestine
Small intestine drains into the large intestine at the cecum
Ascending, transverse, descending, sigmoid colons, rectum, anal sphincter
- Mostly contains things we cannot digest, but some absorption of water and electrolytes occurs
- Houses bacteria- Symbiotic relationship, they get unlimited source of food, generate methane gas, they produce vitamin K for us which we absorb in the large intestine
- Indigested material is known as feces
Visual fields
If one’s head is always facing forward:
Fixation point straight ahead, R and L visual field, nasal
Fixation point slightly to the right- R and L visual field, R nasal and L temporal
Fixation point far right- loss of depth perception, can only see with right eye
Alveolar type I cells
form the wall of the alveoli
Electronegativity
Depends on number of + charges in the nucleus and the distances of the electron from the nucleus
Prokaryotes
No nucleus or other membrane enclosed compartments
Lack distinct organelles
Saturated fatty acids
No double bonds between carbons, saturated with H+ atoms
Close packing of phospholipids into a monolayer, solid at room temperature
Complement system
Pore formation: First complement protein (inactive), cascade of protein activation in bacterial cell
Swelling: fluid rushes into cells
Lysis
System of respiration
Constant exchange of air: ventilation (tidal volume)
Diffusion- oxygen from lungs to blood
Circulation- bulk transport
Diffusion of oxygen into cells
Cellular respiration
Virus
Cause major problems by taking over/infecting cells
Light reactions
Convert light energy to chemical energy as ATP and NADH
Hair cell
Mechanoreceptors with cilia on surface (stereo ilium, tallest called kinocilium)
Stretch gated ion channels, cilia bonding stretches membrane and opens channel
Endolymph surrounding hair cells is rich in K+ that moves inward, causes depolarization
Second trimester
limbs elongate and facial features form
Action potential
Electrical activity in nervous system
Membrane depolarizes, repolarizes, then hyperpolarizes
Two voltage gated channels play a major role (sodium and potassium)
Threshold: -50 to -55 mV
225mph, .02 seconds
Pressure and Volume Change
During inspiration the volume of the lungs increases and the pressure decreases- atmospheric pressure is higher than alveolar pressure, and diffusion can occur
During expiration, the volume of the lungs decreases and the pressure increases- alveolar pressure becomes higher than atmospheric pressure- diffusion outwards
Aquaporins
Special water channels for water to cross a membrane with
Also can cross by hitch hiking with other molecules
When a pigment molecule absorbs a photon (excited state) the energy can be-
Released as heat and/or light
Transferred to another molecule
Used for a chemical reaction
Gas transport through membranes
Oxygen has to cross alveoli and membrane of the capillaries to get into the plasma, and then another membrane to get inside the red blood cells
Loading phase- hemoglobin picks up oxygen
Unloading phase- release oxygen into your tissues to use, takes into mitochondria to produce ATP
Vasodilation & Increased Permeability
• Histamine causes vasodilation
– increases diameter, Increase in blood flow to infected area
– Redness occurs
– Increase delivery of proteins
– Edema occurs- swelling, fluid from blood cells into interstitial tissue
- increased permeability- proteins gain entry from blood to interstitial fluid
- objective- get more immune cells
Amniocentesis
extraction of amnioticfluid with a needle, after the fourteenth week of pregnancy
Monocytes/macrophages
Monocytes are inactive form, on patrol, macrophages are active, they attack
Engulf and digest
Activate T cells
Once monocytes enter tissue they become macrophages
Receptor mediated endocytosis in mammalian cells
Take in cholesterol
I liver, cholesterol packaged into low density lipoprotein (LDL) and secreted into the bloodstream
Cells that need cholesterol have receptors for the LDLs in clathrin coated pits
Active transport involves 3 kinds of proteins
Uniporters- one ion, one direction
Symporters- 2 ions, same direction
Antiporters- 2 ions, different directions
Phagocytosis & Recruitment
- Macrophages in the nearby tissue detect bacteria using receptor proteins to engulf them
- Macrophages release cytokines- chemicals for recruitment
- Mast cells release histamine- causes vasodilation
- Injured cells release chemotaxins- chemo attractants to attract immune cells
Beta glucose
OH up, H down
Oogenesis
- Oogenesis produces eggs.
- Individual egg maturation can be arrested for months, or for as long as 10 (puberty) to 50 (menopause) years in humans!
- During this phase, the primary oocyte grows and addsto its energy, ribosome, and organelle stores. This tpermits the resulting embryo to have nourishment.
Morula
the embryo as a solid ball ofsmall cells. (from Latin for mulberry)
Reversible reactions
In principle all actions are reversible A<–>B
Adding more A speeds up the forward reaction, more B speeds up reverse reaction
Erythropoitin
Hormone produced in kidney to maintain homeostasis of red blood cells, life span at 120 days so it is measured by a receptor, this hormone is sent to bone and told to release more
Monocytes/macrophages
Monocytes are inactive form, on patrol, macrophages are active, they attack
Engulf and digest
Activate T cells
Once monocytes enter tissue they become macrophages
Cleavage
a rapid series of celldivision, but no cell growth
In mammals cleavage is rotational:
First cell division is parallel to the animal–vegetal axis; yields two blastomeres.
In second division two blastomeres divide at right angles to each other;one is parallel to the axis and the other is perpendicular to it. This pattern of division is unique to mammals with placentas.
Specific Recognition Between Sperm and Egg
- Specific recognition molecules mediate interactions between sperm and eggs.
- This ensures that activities of the sperm are directed toward eggs and not other cells and prevents eggs from being fertilized by sperm of the wrong species.
- This latter function is particularly importantin aquatic species, such as sea urchins, that release sperm and eggs into the surrounding water.
Compliance
Ability to change volume and pressure
Balloon is like the lungs- highly compliant
Paper bag- not compliant
Spina bifida
failure of the neural tube to fuse in a posterior region dueto vitamin B deficiency
Myeloid progenitor cells
Blood/platelets or immune cells produced
Types of immune cells:
Granular cells- neutrophils, mast cells
agranular cells- monocytes, macrophages,
The large intestine
Small intestine drains into the large intestine at the cecum
Ascending, transverse, descending, sigmoid colons, rectum, anal sphincter
- Mostly contains things we cannot digest, but some absorption of water and electrolytes occurs
- Houses bacteria- Symbiotic relationship, they get unlimited source of food, generate methane gas, they produce vitamin K for us which we absorb in the large intestine
- Indigested material is known as feces
Roles of the plasma membrane
Selectively permeable barrier
Interface for cells where info is received from adjacent cells and extracellular signals
Allows cells to maintain a constant internal environment
Molecules responsible for binding to adjacent cells
Photoreceptors
Sense light
Cell theory
Cells are the fundamental units of life
All organisms are composed of cells
All cells come from preexisting cells
Microbes
Harmful substances, living or dead
Catalytic subunit
Active site on this subunit
Propagation of the action potential
Once the action potential occurs, depolarization spreads to other parts of the axons
Depolarization triggers VGSC to open and more action potentials to occur
Nociceptors
Pain receptors on skin
What properties of water make it so important in biology?
Polar molecule
Forms hydrogen bonds
Has tetrahedral shape
Functions of the Respiratory System
- Provides oxygen
- Eliminates carbon dioxide
- Regulates pH level- More co2 you get rid of the more hydrogen ions you get rid of
- Speech production
- Defense against foreign bodies- non specific immunity
Organization of the immune system
Nonspecific immune response- protects against foreign substances without having to recognize their identity
Specific immune response- highly specific, usually a major problem that your body is really trying to fight
Covalent catalysis
Functional group in the side chain bonds covalently with the substrate
Twinning
- If blastomeres separate into two groups, each can produce an embryo.
- Monozygotic twins come from the same zygote and are identical.
- Nonidentical twins are from two eggs fertilized by two sperm.
Photosynthesis in noncyclic electron electron transport
Each photosystem consists of several chlorophyll and accessory pigment molecules
Complement each other, must be constantly absorbing light energy to power noncyclic electron transport
Superior vena cava
Brings deoxygenated blood from all structures above diaphragm
Parasite
Any organism that invades and lives by the expense of another body
Most are animals, either micro or macroscopic
Infects muscles and digestive system takes blood (muscles) and nutrients (liver)
Blastocyst
When blastula reaches 16 to 32 cells, it divides into two groups:
- Inner cell mass: becomes the embryo
- Trophoblast: a sac that forms from the outer cells. Its cells secrete fluid and create the blastocoel, with the inner cell mass at one end. Embryo is now called a blastocyst.
Beta glucose
OH up, H down
Non cyclic electron transport
Light energy is used to oxidize water, produces O2, H+, and electrons
After excitation by light, Chl+ is an unstable molecule and seeks electrons
Chl+ is a stron oxidizing agent and takes electrons from water, splitting the water molecule
Alveolar type II cells
Secrete surfactant which keeps the alveoli from collapsing
Nucleus
Contains most of the cells DNA and is the site of DNA duplication to support cell reproduction
Plays role in DNA control of cell activities
First trimester
embryo becomes a fetus
Heart begins to beat by week 4
Limbs form by week 8
The first trimester is the period during which the fetus is most susceptible to damage from radiation, drugs, chemicals, and agents that cause birth defects.
The hormone hCG (human chorionic gonadotropin) is released after implantation and is an early indicator of pregnancy
Starch
Storage of glucose in plants
Branched
Erythropoitin
Hormone produced in kidney to maintain homeostasis of red blood cells, life span at 120 days so it is measured by a receptor, this hormone is sent to bone and told to release more
Childbirth
- Passage of the baby is assisted by the mother’s bearing down with her abdominal muscles.
- Once the baby is clear of the birth canal it canstart breathing and become independent of the mother’s circulation, so the umbilical cord is clamped and cut.
- Finally, the placenta and fetal membranes are detached from the mother and expelled (several minutes–1 hour)
Allergy
Overactive or disproportionate immune system
Chemicals released
Anti histamine can be used (because histamine is the alarm)
Where are these microorganisms?
They like moisture, food particles, want to get in blood vessels (from there they can travel all over the body)
Right and left atrium
Receiving chambers
Twinning
- If blastomeres separate into two groups, each can produce an embryo.
- Monozygotic twins come from the same zygote and are identical.
- Nonidentical twins are from two eggs fertilized by two sperm.
Tight junctions
Prevent substances from moving through spaces between cells
Barrier to diffusion of proteins within the lipid bilayer so it defines functional regions
Branching of the airways
Conducting zone: trachea, primary bronchi, secondary bronchi, tertiary bronchi, bronchioles
Respiratory zone: respiratory bronchioles, alveoli (each alveolus is covered with many capillaries to facilitate the exchange of materials)
Radioisotopes after world war II
Became readily available to cell biologists to study cell metabolism
Ex: tritium(3H) emits beta particle when one extra neutron changes into a proton
Autoradiography- radioisotopes can trace the fate of molecules in cells
CRH
Corticotropin releasing hormone
Stimulate release of ACTH
Sterile cotton swab
Collect microorganisms by smearing on surface
Put on a culture dish with solution called tryptic soy agar, which has nutrients that make bacteria reproduce so you can see them
Ionic bonds
Formed by the electrical attraction of positive and negative ions
During gastrulation, three germ layers form
– The inner germ layer is the endoderm and gives rise to the digestive tract, circulatory tract, and respiratory tract.
– The outer layer, the ectoderm, gives rise to the epidermis and nervous system.
– The middle layer, the mesoderm, contributes to bone, muscle, liver, heart, and blood vessels
AIDS
Acquired immune deficiency syndrome, viruses attack immune cells, vulnerable system open to opportunistic infection
Physical barriers
Skin- brick layers of cells, most pathogens can’t get through it, also produces a hard and fibrous protein called keratin. The closest layer to the surface has the highest amount of keratin- the outermost layer of skin is dead, it produced too much keratin to function
Fibrous layer of the eyes
Mucous membrane of the respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive systems, and ear- thick membrane that prevents pathogens from getting into the circulation
Cilia
Lungs and the mechanisms of the chest
Easy, effortless to breath because of the mechanics of the lungs- always slightly inflated to make inspiration easier
Lungs attached to chest wall and inner layer of your rib cage by very thin set of membranes called a pleural sac
Ribs protect your lungs and work in synchrony with them, chest expands and increase in volume along with your lungs
Cleavage
a rapid series of celldivision, but no cell growth
In mammals cleavage is rotational:
First cell division is parallel to the animal–vegetal axis; yields two blastomeres.
In second division two blastomeres divide at right angles to each other;one is parallel to the axis and the other is perpendicular to it. This pattern of division is unique to mammals with placentas.
Compartmentalization in eukaryotic cells
Key to eukaryotic cell function
Each organelle/ compartment has specific role defined by chemical processes
Membranes surrounding these molecules keep away inappropriate molecules and also act as traffic regulators for raw materials into and out of the organelle
Spina bifida
failure of the neural tube to fuse in a posterior region dueto vitamin B deficiency
Connect of artery to vein
Artery, arteriole, capillaries, venue, vein
Steps in neurulation
- The ectoderm over the notochord thickens and forms the neural plate.
- Edges of the neural plate fold and a deep groove forms.
- The folds fuse, forming the neural tube and a layer of ectoderm, The anterior end of the neural tube becomes the brain, the rest becomes the spinal cord
Cyclic electron transport
Electron from excited P700 chlorophyll molecule n photosystem one cycles back to the same chlorophyll molecule
Involves a series of exergonic redox reactions, the released energy creates a proton gradient that is used to synthesize ATP
Cellular respiration
Production of ATP
prostate gland
produces the thin, milky fluid thatmakes up the rest of the volume of semen
Prostate fluid makes the uterine environment morehospitable to sperm and converts the semen, by
enzyme action on the fibrinogen, into a gelatinous
mass
Inspiration
Diaphragm- Lungs physically sit on diaphragm, main muscle for respiration, pushes down during inspiration
External intercostal muscles- contact and push down
How Are Gases Transported?
• Once in the blood, oxygen is transported in two ways
– 1.5% is dissolved in the plasma and cytosol of erythrocytes
– 98.5 % Bound to hemoglobin
Hormonal mechanism
Endocrine organs are put into action by other hormones
Heart beat
The closing of one set of valves after another
Monocytes/macrophages
Monocytes are inactive form, on patrol, macrophages are active, they attack
Engulf and digest
Activate T cells
Once monocytes enter tissue they become macrophages
Glycogen
Storage of glucose in animals
Highly branched
GnRH
Gonadotropin releasing hormone
Stimulates release of FSH/LH
Nuclear lamina
Meshwork of proteins which maintains the shape of the nuclear envelope and the nucleus
Calvin cycle stimulated by light
Protons pumped form stroma into thylakoids, increasing the pH which favors the activation of rubisco
Electron flow from photosystem one reduces disulfide bonds to activate calvin cycle enzymes
Autoimmune disease
Immune system turned against you, attacks a particular tissue
- diabetes type 1: attacks beta cells that produce insulin
- multiple sclerosis: attacks myelin, slows electrical activities
- rheumatoid arthritis: attacks joints
Chorionic villus sampling
tissue isremoved from the chorion after the eighth week
Tunica externa
Connective tissue with elastic and collagen fibers
Homeostasis
Homeostasis is the maintenance of constant internal environment (sodium level glucose level, pH level, temperature)
The internal environment consists of the interstitial fluid that bathes every cell
Cells exchange materials with their environment
Organization of the immune system
Nonspecific immune response- protects against foreign substances without having to recognize their identity
Specific immune response- highly specific, usually a major problem that your body is really trying to fight
Movement of membrane proteins
Some can move freely within the bilayer, some anchored to a specific region
When cells are fused experimentally some proteins from each cell distribute themselves uniformly around the membrane
Air composition
78.1% nitrogen (goes into lungs and leaves), 20.9% oxygen
Total atmospheric pressure= 760 mmHg (Pressure= concentration)- Patm = PN2 + PO2
Temperature and altitude changes atmospheric pressure
Partial pressure of N2 = 760 mmHg x 0.781 ~ 600 mmHg
Partial pressure of O2 = 760 mmHg x 0.21 ~ 160mmHg
We breathe very easily, so partial pressure in lungs should be lower, so process of diffusion is easy. 100 mm mercury
Cristae
Folds of the inner membrane give rise to these
Contains large protein molecules used in cellular respiration
Macrophages in alveoli
Ward against foreign bodies, get rid of debris
Antenna systems
Pigments arranged in these
Also called light harvesting complexes
Mitochondria
Converts potential energy of fuel molecules into form that cell can use (ATP)
Outer lipid bilayer and highly folded inner membrane
Stoma
Mouth of plant
Co2 enters and O2/water exit through these pores
Resolution
Limiting factor in all microscopes, need high resolution to see detail
Morula
the embryo as a solid ball ofsmall cells. (from Latin for mulberry)
Morula
the embryo as a solid ball ofsmall cells. (from Latin for mulberry)
Vasodilation & Increased Permeability
• Histamine causes vasodilation
– increases diameter, Increase in blood flow to infected area
– Redness occurs
– Increase delivery of proteins
– Edema occurs- swelling, fluid from blood cells into interstitial tissue
- increased permeability- proteins gain entry from blood to interstitial fluid
- objective- get more immune cells
Morula
the embryo as a solid ball ofsmall cells. (from Latin for mulberry)
Ingredients for photosynthesis
Co2 reduced to sugars that travel throughout the plant body
Water up taken by roots
Water and oxygen released
Transmural pressure
The pressure difference between two membranes
trophoblast
- In mammals, the first extraembryonic membrane to form is the trophoblast.
- When the blastocyst hatches from the zona pellucida, the trophoblast cells attach to the uterine wall, This is the beginning of implantation.
- The trophoblast becomes part of the uterine wall, and sends out villi to increase surface area and contact with maternal blood.
How Are Gases Transported?
• Once in the blood, oxygen is transported in two ways
– 1.5% is dissolved in the plasma and cytosol of erythrocytes
– 98.5 % Bound to hemoglobin
Densities of H2O at various states
Water>ice>vapor
Aorta
Delivers oxygenated blood from left ventricle to body
Biggest blood vessel in body
How do we study organelles?
First studied using light microscopy
Cell fractionation separates organelles for study by chemical methods (spin tubes of cells with rotor)
Antenna systems
Pigments arranged in these
Also called light harvesting complexes
Temporal lobe
Primary auditory cortex- hearing
Vision-visual association area for facial recognition
Olfaction
Fertilization
Fertilization is the union of haploid sperm and haploid egg to produce a single diploid cell, the zygote
clitoris
the anatomical analog of the male penis that is capable of erection and is highly sensitive to sexual stimulation
Both the labia minora and clitoris become engorgedwith blood during sexual stimulation
Nonspecific immunity
Prevention
Attack- if it gets in the circulatory system
Accessory pigments
Transfer energy absorbed to chorophylls
Carotenoids and phycobilins
Absorb intermediate between red and blue
Cyclic electron transport
Electron from excited P700 chlorophyll molecule n photosystem one cycles back to the same chlorophyll molecule
Involves a series of exergonic redox reactions, the released energy creates a proton gradient that is used to synthesize ATP
Rigor Mortis
Muscles are stiff, myosin remains attatched to actin because there is no ATP to unbind it
Hyperpolarizing potential
Negative ion goes to postsynaptic cell
Inhibitory synapse
Sterile cotton swab
Collect microorganisms by smearing on surface
Put on a culture dish with solution called tryptic soy agar, which has nutrients that make bacteria reproduce so you can see them
Path of zygote
- Still in the oviduct, the zygote divides to become a blastocyst and continues down the oviduct.
- In the uterus, the blastocyst attaches to the wall lining called the endometrium.
Gas transport through membranes
Oxygen has to cross alveoli and membrane of the capillaries to get into the plasma, and then another membrane to get inside the red blood cells
Loading phase- hemoglobin picks up oxygen
Unloading phase- release oxygen into your tissues to use, takes into mitochondria to produce ATP
Calvin and benson
Used 14C radioisotope to determine the sequence of reactions in CO2 fixation
Exposed chlorella to 14CO2 then extracted the organic compounds and separated them by paper chromatography
3 second exposure of chlorella to 14CO2 revealed that the first compound to be formed is 3PG, a 3 carbon sugar phosphate
Anencephaly
failure of the neural tube to close at the anterior end and no forebrain develops
Pressure change
Breathing associated with skeletal muscles that are constantly contracting and relaxing, gases are quantified by pressur
Atmospheric pressure (Patm)- pressure on the outside in the environment
Alveolar pressure (Palv)-pressure inside your lungs
Intrapleural pressure (Pip)- pressure in pleural sac, fills up with fluid that exerts pressure
Alveolar and interpleural pressure are constantly fluctuating because they depend on your state
Action spectrum
Plot of biological activity as a function of exposure to varied wavelengths of light
Allergy
Overactive or disproportionate immune system
Chemicals released
Anti histamine can be used (because histamine is the alarm)
Leydig cells
Male sex hormones are produced by clusters of Leydig cells lying between the seminiferous tubules.
Actin
Actin is globular protein that polymerizes to form an intertwined helix
binding site is on actin molecules with attachment for myosin crossbridge
Photo system 1
Light energy reduces NADP+ to NADPH
Reaction center has chlorophyll a molecules: P700 absorbs in the 700nm range
Pulmonary circulation
Short distance circuit
Delivers deoxygenated (blood never has absolutely no oxygen) blood from the heart to the lungs
Sarcomere
Thick and thin filaments, alternating proteins
Force come from interactions between thick and thin filaments
Z line is boundary of sarcomere
Allostery
Shapes exist in more than one shape
Active- can bind substrate
Inactive- cannot bind substrate but can bind inhibitor
Most allosteric enzymes are proteins with quaternary structure
Twinning
- If blastomeres separate into two groups, each can produce an embryo.
- Monozygotic twins come from the same zygote and are identical.
- Nonidentical twins are from two eggs fertilized by two sperm.
Vasodilation & Increased Permeability
• Histamine causes vasodilation
– increases diameter, Increase in blood flow to infected area
– Redness occurs
– Increase delivery of proteins
– Edema occurs- swelling, fluid from blood cells into interstitial tissue
- increased permeability- proteins gain entry from blood to interstitial fluid
- objective- get more immune cells
Intermediate filaments
Fund in multicellular organisms, form rope like structures in cells
Stabilize cell strucuture and resist tension
Can maintain the positions of organelles
Lamins provide structural support to the nuclear membrane
Photosynthesis
“synthesis from light”
Plants take in CO2, produce carbohydrates, and release O2 and water
Light is required
6CO2 + 12H2O–> C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O
Bacteria
Unicellular prokaryotes
Barriers to infection
Physical barriers
Chemical barriers
Reflexes
Phagocytosis
Attatchment (opsonization)- Physically bind to pathogen
Internalization, turns into phagosome
Degradation- Fuses with lysosome and becomes phagolysosome, and after the digestive enzymes can be reused
Exocytosis- elimination of debris
Anencephaly
failure of the neural tube to close at the anterior end and no forebrain develops
Barriers to infection
Physical barriers
Chemical barriers
Reflexes
Components of homeostatic system
• Receptors
– Provide information about specific conditions
• Control Center
– Evaluates the information from receptors
– Set point
• Effectors
– Respond to restore the deviation from the setvalues of the internal environment
Electron microscope
Use electromagnets to focus an electron beam, wavelength is much shorter than light so much higher resolution .5 nm
Chemical barriers
Sebum- oily acidic substance released from sebaceous glands
Lacrimal glands- tears protect sclera and cornea, dripping through nasal cavity, washing of the eye
Lysozymes- degrading/digestive enzymes secreted from the mucous membranes
Defensins- peptides secreted from the mucous membranes
Ear wax- things get stuck
Sweat- cools body and at same time destroys microorganisms on skin, B.O. Is the degradation of bacteria on skin
Macrophages- immune cells
Stomach acid- HCl, damaging
Saliva
uterine cycle
- The uterine cycle parallels the ovarian cycle and involves the buildup, then breakdown, of the endometrium.
- About five days into the ovarian cycle, the endometrium builds in preparation for the blastocyst.
- About five days after ovulation, the uterus is maximally prepared and stays that way for another nine days.
- If the blastocyst does not arrive by then, the endometrium breaks down and sloughs off during menstruation.
Peptide linkage
Condensation reactions between amino group of one amino acid and the carboxyl group of another
Synthesizes proteins
Extracellular destruction: complement
• Membrane Attack Complex (MAC)
– Embeds itself in the microbe membrane, forming pores
– Water and salt enter the microbe
Proteins released by liver to do the job: complement system
Blastocyst
When blastula reaches 16 to 32 cells, it divides into two groups:
- Inner cell mass: becomes the embryo
- Trophoblast: a sac that forms from the outer cells. Its cells secrete fluid and create the blastocoel, with the inner cell mass at one end. Embryo is now called a blastocyst.
Alveolar type II cells
Secrete surfactant which keeps the alveoli from collapsing
urethra
the common duct for urinary and reproductive systems
Lymphoid tissues
Adenoids, tonsils, thymus, lymph noes, spleen, bone marrow, lymphatic vessels
Immune cells originate here, majorly from bone marrow
immune cells are scattered all over, but they are clustered in certain areas in case of infection
Functions of the extracellular matrix
Holds cells together in tissues
Contributes to physical properties of tissue
Helps filter material passing between tissues
Helps orient cell movement
Role in chemical signaling
Photosystem
Multiple antenna systems, surround reaction centers
Pigments packed together on thylakoids membrane proteins
Excitation energy passes from the pigments that absorb short wavelengths to those that absorb longer wavelengths, and ends up in the reaction center pigment
Allergy
Overactive or disproportionate immune system
Chemicals released
Anti histamine can be used (because histamine is the alarm)
Genome
Complete set of DNA in a living organism
Erections
sexually aroused male’s autonomic nervous system causes penis blood vessel dilation. The nerve endings release nitric oxide, (NO, a gas) a neurotransmitter that stimulates the production of cGMP a second messenger that acts on the blood vessels
This swells the spongy, erectile tissue and compresses the blood flow from the penis
Transmural pressure
The pressure difference between two membranes
Photosystem 2
Light energy oxidizes water to oxygen, H+, and electrons
Reaction center has chlorophyll a molecules: P680 absorbs at 680 nm (more energetic than P700)
Excited first
Absorption spectrum
Plot of wavelengths absorbed by a pigment
G3P
Gylceraldehyde 3 phosphate
5/6 recycled into RuBP
1/6 converted to starch and sucrose to make glucose and fructose
Sharp object penetrating skin
Easiest way to get infected by a pathogen
Some cells are already in the vicinity, they destroy and then call for back up
Lysosomes
Vesicles containing digestive enzymes that come in part from the Golgi
Sites for breakdown of food and foreign material brought into the cell by phagocytosis
Detection of spent cellular components- autophagy- cell components are frequently destroyed and replaced with new ones
Fungi
Yeast is a unicellular form
Ex: athlete’s foot
Chorionic villus sampling
tissue isremoved from the chorion after the eighth week
Acid base catalysis
Enzyme side chains transfer H+ to or from the substrate to break a covalent bond
Air composition
78.1% nitrogen (goes into lungs and leaves), 20.9% oxygen
Total atmospheric pressure= 760 mmHg (Pressure= concentration)- Patm = PN2 + PO2
Temperature and altitude changes atmospheric pressure
Partial pressure of N2 = 760 mmHg x 0.781 ~ 600 mmHg
Partial pressure of O2 = 760 mmHg x 0.21 ~ 160mmHg
We breathe very easily, so partial pressure in lungs should be lower, so process of diffusion is easy. 100 mm mercury
Diffusion rate depends on
Diameter of molecules or ions
Temperature of solution
Concentration gradient
Movement of membrane proteins
Some can move freely within the bilayer, some anchored to a specific region
When cells are fused experimentally some proteins from each cell distribute themselves uniformly around the membrane
Allergy
Overactive or disproportionate immune system
Chemicals released
Anti histamine can be used (because histamine is the alarm)
Path of the egg
the mature egg is released into the body cavity and is swept into the end of the oviduct (Fallopian tube) by an undulating fringe of tissue (Fertilization takes place in the oviduct and, in humans, the second meiotic division takes place)
Cilia lining the oviduct propel the fertilized or unfertilized egg toward the uterus, a muscular, thick-walled cavity
The opening at the bottom of the uterus is the cervix,which leads into the vagina
labia majora and labia minora
The external opening of the vagina has two sets of folded skin, the labia majora and labia minora, which also surround the urethra
Labia majora equivalent of scrotum
Lania minora becomes engorged with blood
Lymphoid tissues
Adenoids, tonsils, thymus, lymph noes, spleen, bone marrow, lymphatic vessels
Immune cells originate here, majorly from bone marrow
immune cells are scattered all over, but they are clustered in certain areas in case of infection
Sodium-potassium pump
Primary active transport, found in all animal cells
Pump is an integral membrane glycoprotein that is an antiporter
Gets 3 sodium ions out and 2 potassium ions in by hydrolyzing ATP
Active transport
Moves substances against a concentration or electrical gradient, it requires energy (often ATP)
Compliance
Ability to change volume and pressure
Balloon is like the lungs- highly compliant
Paper bag- not compliant
Muscles of Expiration
• Passive expiration
– Elastic recoil of the lungs
• Active expiration
– Contraction of internal intercostals
– Contraction of abdominal muscles (causesdiaphragm to be pushed up)
Nuclear lamina
Meshwork of proteins which maintains the shape of the nuclear envelope and the nucleus
Where does the muscle get the energy from?
Many mitochondria in muscles to keep up with the energy demand
Get glucose and oxygen to produce energy
Three sources: creatine phosphate (limited short term source of energy, immediately available and only lasts about 1 second), cellular respiration (until O2 debt,more oxygen needed than had), glycolysis followed by fermentation, and then fatigue hits
Photosynthesis in noncyclic electron electron transport
Each photosystem consists of several chlorophyll and accessory pigment molecules
Complement each other, must be constantly absorbing light energy to power noncyclic electron transport
Non polar covalent bond
Share electrons equally
Phospholipid movement in the bilayer
Lateral diffusion, flexing, and rotation but no flip flop
Lipids absorption
- Can easily permeate through the plasma membrane, tightly controlled so it doesn’t pass freely, bile salt packages glycerol and fatty acids into micelles - lipoprotein vehicle that is hydrophilic on the outside and hydrophobic on the inside, allows it to move into the small intestine cells
- Once micelles approach the apical side of the epithelial cell membrane, the glycerol and fatty acid passively diffuse into the cell
- The glycerol and fatty acid are then resynthesized into triglycerides and packaged into a lipoprotein known as chylomicrons- large vesicles that cannot fit into the capillaries, does not go into the blood immediately
- Chylomicrons are then exocytosed into the lymphatic system which has fluid in its own circulation and vessels that are more permeable, eventually drain into superior vena cava and ends up in circulation, liver sorts and ships these lipids
Interneurons
Connect neurons within the CNS, processes
GH
Growth hormone
Promotes growth
Target organ: muscles, liver, bones, etc
Lumen
Cavity within blood vessel
Electrocardiogram graph
P wave- atrial depolarization(contraction) and electrical activities
QRS- Ventricular depolarization/contraction, much higher than atrial contraction because atria only have to pump to ventricle, but ventricle has to pump far
T- ventricular repolarization
Tight junctions
Prevent substances from moving through spaces between cells
Barrier to diffusion of proteins within the lipid bilayer so it defines functional regions
Rubisco
Enzyme that catalyzes fixation of CO2
Ribosome bisphosphate carboxylase/
Most abundant protein in the world, 50% of the protein in a leaf
Absorption spectrum
Plot of wavelengths absorbed by a pigment
Compliance
Ability to change volume and pressure
Balloon is like the lungs- highly compliant
Paper bag- not compliant
Vacuoles
In plant and protist cells
Store waste products and toxic compounds; some may deter herbivores
Provides structure for plant cells, water enters by osmosis and creates turbot pressure
Stores anthocyanins(pigment) in flowers/fruit to attract pollinators
Digestive enzymes to hydrolyze stored food for early growth
Cleavage
a rapid series of celldivision, but no cell growth
In mammals cleavage is rotational:
First cell division is parallel to the animal–vegetal axis; yields two blastomeres.
In second division two blastomeres divide at right angles to each other;one is parallel to the axis and the other is perpendicular to it. This pattern of division is unique to mammals with placentas.
Thylakoids
The way internal membranes are arranged in chloroplasts, thylakoids make stacks called grana
These membranes contain chlorophyll and other pigments
Concentration of ions against the neuronal membrane
Na: Extracellular 150mM, intracellular 15mM
K: Extracellular 5 mM, intracellular 140 mM
Nuclear pores
In the nuclear envelope, connect the interior of the nucleus with the rest of the cytoplasm
Pore complex- 8 large protein granules surround each pore
RNA and proteins must pass through these pores to enter or leave the nucleus
How is Carbon Dioxide Transported?
5-6% dissolved in plasma
5-8% bind to hemoglobin at a different binding site than oxygen
86-90% converted to hydrogen ions and bicarbonate by enzyme called carbonic anhydrase. When co2 goes up hydrogen ions go up and ph decreases, and vice versa. Want ph of 7.4
How is polypeptide chain organized?
Like a sentence- “capital letter” is like the amino group of the first amino acid, and the “period” is like the carboxyl group of the last amino acid
Non cyclic electron transport
Light energy is used to oxidize water, produces O2, H+, and electrons
After excitation by light, Chl+ is an unstable molecule and seeks electrons
Chl+ is a stron oxidizing agent and takes electrons from water, splitting the water molecule
Microfilaments
Made of protein actin, can be single filaments or networks
Needed for cell contraction (as in muscle cells, associated with myosin for muscle contraction), also add structure to plasma membrane and shape to cells
Involved in cytoplasmic streaming and formation of pseudopodia
Polar, polymerizes to form long helical chains
seminal vesicles
produce about two-thirds of the volume of semen, consisting of mucus, fibrinogen (clotting agent), and fructose as an energy source for the sperm
Pulmonary veins
Bring back oxygenated blood from lungs to left atrium
Flagella
Come in ones and twos, longer than cilia
Flagella
Locomotory structures shaped like corkscrew
Some prokaryotes have this
DNA replication
Depends on base pairing, as does transcription
Involves entire molecule only small sections of DNA are transcribed into RNA
The female reproductive cycle actually consists of two linked cycles:
an ovarian cycle that produces eggs and hormones and a uterine cycle that prepares the endometrium for the arrival of a blastocyst
Neutrophils
Most abundant phagocytic cells
Release:
Cytokines- alarming chemicals to alarm other immune cells
Vasodilators- increases size of blood cells, Make blood vessel bigger so immune cells can travel
Chemotaxins- chemo attractants, attract other immune cells, travel in blood vessels and squeeze out of them, can get anywhere in the body
Steps of fertilization
– The sperm and egg recognize each other.
– The sperm is activated so that it can gain access to the plasma membrane of the egg.
– The plasma membranes of the sperm and egg fuse.
– The egg blocks entry of additional sperm.
– The egg is stimulated to start development.
– The egg and sperm nuclei fuse
Anions
Negative
Photophosphorylation
Light driven production of ATP
H+ transported via electron carriers across the thylakoid membrane from the stroma into the lumen, creating an electrochemical gradient
Secondary structure
Alpha helix- right handed coil, resulting from hydrogen bonding, common in fibrous structural proteins
Beta pleated sheet- two or more polypeptide chains are aligned, hydrogen bonded
How do gases cross the lung/bloodmedia?
Process of diffusion.
Alveoli made of single layered cells, blood capillaries only have tunica intima and some connective tissue, so very thin, and easy process of diffusion
Both the capillaries and the alveoli are lined with simple squamous epithelium
Primary active transport
Requires direct hydrolysis of ATP
Parasite
Any organism that invades and lives by the expense of another body
Most are animals, either micro or macroscopic
Infects muscles and digestive system takes blood (muscles) and nutrients (liver)
Compartmentalization in eukaryotic cells
Key to eukaryotic cell function
Each organelle/ compartment has specific role defined by chemical processes
Membranes surrounding these molecules keep away inappropriate molecules and also act as traffic regulators for raw materials into and out of the organelle
Pigments
Molecules that absorb specific wavelengths in the visible range of the spectrum
Photons can have a wide range of wavelengths and energy levels
Entropy
Disorder, spontaneous processes always proceed to disorder
Alpha glucose
OH down, H up
Aphasia
Language areas damaged
Receptor mediated endocytosis
Deeds on receptor proteins (integral membrane proteins) to bind to specific substances
Sites called coated pits, coated with other proteins such as clathrin
Synthesis of peptides
Hormones are synthesized in the ribosomes and RER as preprohormones- an inactive form that is stored inside the cell
that get converted to prohormone by modification
Packaged in Golgi as prohormone
Large peptide released from cell by exocytosis because lipid insoluble
When released into the blood still inactive, become active in circulation
First trimester
embryo becomes a fetus
Heart begins to beat by week 4
Limbs form by week 8
The first trimester is the period during which the fetus is most susceptible to damage from radiation, drugs, chemicals, and agents that cause birth defects.
The hormone hCG (human chorionic gonadotropin) is released after implantation and is an early indicator of pregnancy
Two systems of electron transport
Non cyclic electron transport- produces NADPH and ATP
Cyclic electron transport- produces ATP only
- when you need more sugar you need more ATP than NADH, so cyclic transport is needed
AIDS
Acquired immune deficiency syndrome, viruses attack immune cells, vulnerable system open to opportunistic infection
Fertilization
Fertilization is the union of haploid sperm and haploid egg to produce a single diploid cell, the zygote
Phagocytic cell migration
- The cytokines released by macrophages signal the endothelial cells to express selectin
- Margination occurs- dock and fuse with membrane, carbohydrate ligands on macrophages bind to selectin in blood vessel, move in blood vessel by rolling
- Phagocytic cells produce integrin on their membrane
- Stronger attachment occurs- immune cells are allowed to slow down and exit
- Phagocytic cells begin to move from the blood to the infected area in a process known as diapedisis
- Once in the interstitial fluid, phagocytic cells are attracted to the site of injury by chemotaxins- tell phagocytic cells exactly where to go
Photosystem 2
Light energy oxidizes water to oxygen, H+, and electrons
Reaction center has chlorophyll a molecules: P680 absorbs at 680 nm (more energetic than P700)
Excited first
Vitamins
Small molecules not synthesized by the body, must be acquired in the diet
How Are Gases Transported?
• Once in the blood, oxygen is transported in two ways
– 1.5% is dissolved in the plasma and cytosol of erythrocytes
– 98.5 % Bound to hemoglobin
Chlorophylls a and b
Ring structure with magnesium atom in center
Hydrocarbon tail which anchors them to integral proteins in the thylakoids membrane
Absorb in red and blue region
Rods when exposed to light
cGMP levels are low
Na+ channels are closed
Hyperpolarization occurs
No NT release, no graded potential
Then signal sent to brin, occipital lobe interprets visual information
Specific Recognition Between Sperm and Egg
- Specific recognition molecules mediate interactions between sperm and eggs.
- This ensures that activities of the sperm are directed toward eggs and not other cells and prevents eggs from being fertilized by sperm of the wrong species.
- This latter function is particularly importantin aquatic species, such as sea urchins, that release sperm and eggs into the surrounding water.
Sterile cotton swab
Collect microorganisms by smearing on surface
Put on a culture dish with solution called tryptic soy agar, which has nutrients that make bacteria reproduce so you can see them
Mast cells
- Mast cells are found throughout connective tissues (not found in blood)
- They release histamine and other chemicals involved in inflammation
Ovarian cycle steps
1- primary oocytes (2n) are present in the ovary at birth
2- about once a month, between puberty and menopause, 6-12 primary oocytes begin to mature. A primary oocyte and it’s surrounding cells is called a follicle
3- the developing oocyte is nourished by follicle cells which also produce estrogen
4- after one week, usually only one primary oocyte begins to develop. A meiotic division just before ovulation creates the secondary oocyte (n). First polar body
5- at ovulation on the 14th day, the follicle ruptures and releases the egg which is caught by the Fallopian t uses
6- remaining follicle cells create the corpus lutenum, which produces progesterone and estrogen
7-if pregnancy does not occur, the corpus lutenum degenerates
Protist
Uni or multicellular, contaminate lakes and drinking water to invade host
Mast cells
- Mast cells are found throughout connective tissues (not found in blood)
- They release histamine and other chemicals involved in inflammation
Path of sperm
- To achieve fertilization, sperm swim up the vagina, assisted by contractions of the female reproductive tract.
- The sperm then pass through the cervix and most of the oviduct to the egg (secondary oocyte) in the upper oviduct.
- Egg and sperm nucleus (both haploid) fuse to produce the diploid zygote.
Calvin cycle stimulated by light
Protons pumped form stroma into thylakoids, increasing the pH which favors the activation of rubisco
Electron flow from photosystem one reduces disulfide bonds to activate calvin cycle enzymes
Lipid composition in plasma membranes
Phospholipids vary- fatty acid chain length, degree of saturation, phosphate groups
Can be up to 25 percent cholesterol
What causes damage to the brain?
Trauma
Stroke- inadequate blood delivery to the brain, deprived of nutrients, tries to do anaerobic respiration due to lack of oxygen but it does not have the enzymes for fermentation so part of the brain dies
Seizure- Brian uncontrollably fires, sync of electrical activities lost
Neutrophils
Most abundant phagocytic cells
Release:
Cytokines- alarming chemicals to alarm other immune cells
Vasodilators- increases size of blood cells, Make blood vessel bigger so immune cells can travel
Chemotaxins- chemo attractants, attract other immune cells, travel in blood vessels and squeeze out of them, can get anywhere in the body
Air composition
78.1% nitrogen (goes into lungs and leaves), 20.9% oxygen
Total atmospheric pressure= 760 mmHg (Pressure= concentration)- Patm = PN2 + PO2
Temperature and altitude changes atmospheric pressure
Partial pressure of N2 = 760 mmHg x 0.781 ~ 600 mmHg
Partial pressure of O2 = 760 mmHg x 0.21 ~ 160mmHg
We breathe very easily, so partial pressure in lungs should be lower, so process of diffusion is easy. 100 mm mercury
Spermatogenesis
Male germ cell (2n)
Mitosis
Spermatogonium (2n)
Mitosis (first DNA synthesis-Chromosomes don’t separate, cross over- DNA from two pairs get scrambled)
Primary spermatocyte (2n)
first meiotic division (no DNA synthesis)
Secondary spermatocytes (1n)
Secondary meiotic division, independent assortment of chromosomes
Spermatids (1n)
Differentiation and maturation
Sperm cells (1n)
Second trimester
limbs elongate and facial features form
Energy transfer and electron transport
Light energy absorbed by antenna chlorophylls, and passed on to reaction center
Molecule goes to excited state
Energized electron from chlorophyll molecules passed to electron acceptor to reduce it
Capillaries
Smallest diameter blood vessels
Made of endothelial layer only (tunica intima)
Have slits- Slits facilitate movement and exhange of materials between cells
They are the site of exchange with cells
Lowest velocity, delivering nutrients at slow speed
Synthesis of steroids
Smooth ER synthesizes lipids, mitochondria synthesize steroid hormones
Released into circulation (blood vessels) moving freely through the membrane by diffusion
Simple diffusion
Smile molecules pass through the lipid bilayer
Water and lipid soluble molecules can diffuse across the membrane
Electrically charged and polar molecules cannot pass through easily
Tertiary structure
Many bonds: Covalent disulfide bridges Hydrophobic side chain interactions Van der waals forces Ionic bonds Hydrogen bonds
Tropomyosin
Arranged like ribbon that binds the myosin binding site on actin
Virus
Cause major problems by taking over/infecting cells
Components of the cytoskeleton
Microfilaments
Intermediate filaments
Microtubules
How is sound transmitted?
Vibration of air molecules goes through the pinnacle passing through the external auditory canal
Waves then vibrate the tympanic membrane, causes 3 ossicles to move
Ossicles cause oval window to vibrate, moves fluid
Leads to stimulation of hair cells inside the cochlea
Somites
separate, segmented blocks of cells on either side of the neural tube.
Muscle, cartilage, bone, and lower layer of the skin form from somites.
Neural crest cells are guided by somites to develop into peripheral nerves and other structures
Mitochondria
Converts potential energy of fuel molecules into form that cell can use (ATP)
Outer lipid bilayer and highly folded inner membrane
Right and left atrium
Receiving chambers
Monocytes/macrophages
Monocytes are inactive form, on patrol, macrophages are active, they attack
Engulf and digest
Activate T cells
Once monocytes enter tissue they become macrophages
When a photon meets a molecule it can be-
Scattered- photon bounces off the molecule
Transmitted- photon passed through the molecule
Absorbed- molecule squires the energy of the photon. Goes from ground state to excited state, and disappears and energy is absorbed
Absorption spectrum
Plot of wavelengths absorbed by a pigment
When a photon meets a molecule it can be-
Scattered- photon bounces off the molecule
Transmitted- photon passed through the molecule
Absorbed- molecule squires the energy of the photon. Goes from ground state to excited state, and disappears and energy is absorbed
Blastocoel
a central fluid-filled cavity that forms in the ball of cells
The embryo becomes a blastula and its cells are called blastomeres
Stroma
Fluid in which grana are suspended in chloroplasts
Blastomere
- Blastomeres become determined, or committed toa specific fate, at different times in different animals.
- Roundworm and clam blastomeres are already determined at the 8-cell stage.
- If one cell is removed, a portion of the embryo fails to develop normally. This is called mosaic development.
- Humans have regulative development. If some cells are lost during cleavage, other cells can compensate. For genetic testing in humans, one cell can be removed from a blastula following in vitro fertilization. If there are no mutations in the gene of interest, that blastula can be implanted
RNA bases
Uracil instead of thymine
Single stranded but complementary base pairing occurs in the structure of some types of RNA
Phagocytosis
Food molecules enter the cell through a formed phagosome
Childbirth
- Passage of the baby is assisted by the mother’s bearing down with her abdominal muscles.
- Once the baby is clear of the birth canal it canstart breathing and become independent of the mother’s circulation, so the umbilical cord is clamped and cut.
- Finally, the placenta and fetal membranes are detached from the mother and expelled (several minutes–1 hour)
Air composition
78.1% nitrogen (goes into lungs and leaves), 20.9% oxygen
Total atmospheric pressure= 760 mmHg (Pressure= concentration)- Patm = PN2 + PO2
Temperature and altitude changes atmospheric pressure
Partial pressure of N2 = 760 mmHg x 0.781 ~ 600 mmHg
Partial pressure of O2 = 760 mmHg x 0.21 ~ 160mmHg
We breathe very easily, so partial pressure in lungs should be lower, so process of diffusion is easy. 100 mm mercury
Inspiration
Diaphragm- Lungs physically sit on diaphragm, main muscle for respiration, pushes down during inspiration
External intercostal muscles- contact and push down
Processes in Calvin Benson cycle
Fixation of CO2 by combination with RuBP (catalyzes by rubisco)
Conversion of fixed CO2 into carbohydrate G3P (using ATP and NADPH)
Regeneration of CO2 acceptor RuBP by ATP
How is Carbon Dioxide Transported?
5-6% dissolved in plasma
5-8% bind to hemoglobin at a different binding site than oxygen
86-90% converted to hydrogen ions and bicarbonate by enzyme called carbonic anhydrase. When co2 goes up hydrogen ions go up and ph decreases, and vice versa. Want ph of 7.4
Path of the egg
the mature egg is released into the body cavity and is swept into the end of the oviduct (Fallopian tube) by an undulating fringe of tissue (Fertilization takes place in the oviduct and, in humans, the second meiotic division takes place)
Cilia lining the oviduct propel the fertilized or unfertilized egg toward the uterus, a muscular, thick-walled cavity
The opening at the bottom of the uterus is the cervix,which leads into the vagina
Air composition
78.1% nitrogen (goes into lungs and leaves), 20.9% oxygen
Total atmospheric pressure= 760 mmHg (Pressure= concentration)- Patm = PN2 + PO2
Temperature and altitude changes atmospheric pressure
Partial pressure of N2 = 760 mmHg x 0.781 ~ 600 mmHg
Partial pressure of O2 = 760 mmHg x 0.21 ~ 160mmHg
We breathe very easily, so partial pressure in lungs should be lower, so process of diffusion is easy. 100 mm mercury
DA
Dopamine
Inhibits prolactin release, so when there is no dopamine prolactin is released
Morula
the embryo as a solid ball ofsmall cells. (from Latin for mulberry)
Hypophysis (pituitary gland)
Located behind your nose, size of pea, need it to survive
9 hormones each with particular function
Two separate lobes (anterior and posterior)
Eukaryotes
Membrane enclosed nucleus as well as other membrane enclosed compartments
Animals, plants, fungi, protists
Contains organelles, membrane enclosed nucleus
Protein scaffolding called cytoskeleton
When a photon meets a molecule it can be-
Scattered- photon bounces off the molecule
Transmitted- photon passed through the molecule
Absorbed- molecule squires the energy of the photon. Goes from ground state to excited state, and disappears and energy is absorbed
Depolarizing potential
Small positive change in voltage (Na+ or Ca+)
Excitatory synapse
Path of the egg
the mature egg is released into the body cavity and is swept into the end of the oviduct (Fallopian tube) by an undulating fringe of tissue (Fertilization takes place in the oviduct and, in humans, the second meiotic division takes place)
Cilia lining the oviduct propel the fertilized or unfertilized egg toward the uterus, a muscular, thick-walled cavity
The opening at the bottom of the uterus is the cervix,which leads into the vagina
Nucleolus
Specialized region inside the nucleus where ribosomes are initially assembled
Cellular respiration
Production of ATP
Primary structure of a protein
The sequence of amino acids
Determines secondary and tertiary structure, how the protein is folded
Respiration
Takes air into body, diffusion lets it into circulation
Cells need oxygen and food to produce ATP, low level of waste called co2
carbs, lipids all help to produce energy with waste product co2 exhaled
Twinning
- If blastomeres separate into two groups, each can produce an embryo.
- Monozygotic twins come from the same zygote and are identical.
- Nonidentical twins are from two eggs fertilized by two sperm.
The immune system
Protects against infection and microbes
Isolates and removes non microbial foreign substances
The immune system
Protects against infection and microbes
Isolates and removes non microbial foreign substances
System of respiration
Constant exchange of air: ventilation (tidal volume)
Diffusion- oxygen from lungs to blood
Circulation- bulk transport
Diffusion of oxygen into cells
Cellular respiration
urethra
the common duct for urinary and reproductive systems
Pressure and Volume Change
During inspiration the volume of the lungs increases and the pressure decreases- atmospheric pressure is higher than alveolar pressure, and diffusion can occur
During expiration, the volume of the lungs decreases and the pressure increases- alveolar pressure becomes higher than atmospheric pressure- diffusion outwards
Chorionic villus sampling
tissue isremoved from the chorion after the eighth week
Myelin
Type of lipid that Schwann cells produce as sheaths to insulate the axon
Helps electrical activity not leak
Pigments
Molecules that absorb specific wavelengths in the visible range of the spectrum
Photons can have a wide range of wavelengths and energy levels
Ingredients for photosynthesis
Co2 reduced to sugars that travel throughout the plant body
Water up taken by roots
Water and oxygen released
Rubisco
Enzyme that catalyzes fixation of CO2
Ribosome bisphosphate carboxylase/
Most abundant protein in the world, 50% of the protein in a leaf
Blastocoel
a central fluid-filled cavity that forms in the ball of cells
The embryo becomes a blastula and its cells are called blastomeres
Pigments
Molecules that absorb specific wavelengths in the visible range of the spectrum
Photons can have a wide range of wavelengths and energy levels
Glyoxisomes
Structurally similar organelles found in plants that convert lipids to carbs (fats to sugars)
Three classes of hormonal composition
Steriod- lipid soluble, can permeate through the membrane, receptor inside the cell
proteins (peptides)- cannot permeate through membrane because it is water soluble, receptor on plasma membrane
amines are made of one amino acid- in between
Parasite
Any organism that invades and lives by the expense of another body
Most are animals, either micro or macroscopic
Infects muscles and digestive system takes blood (muscles) and nutrients (liver)
Chemical barriers
Sebum- oily acidic substance released from sebaceous glands
Lacrimal glands- tears protect sclera and cornea, dripping through nasal cavity, washing of the eye
Lysozymes- degrading/digestive enzymes secreted from the mucous membranes
Defensins- peptides secreted from the mucous membranes
Ear wax- things get stuck
Sweat- cools body and at same time destroys microorganisms on skin, B.O. Is the degradation of bacteria on skin
Macrophages- immune cells
Stomach acid- HCl, damaging
Saliva
Phagocytosis
Molecules or entire cells are engulfed
Some protists feed in this way
White blood cells engulf foreign substances
A food vacuole (phagosome) forms and fuses with a lysosome
Cross bridge cycle
2 states of myosin- low energy, high energy (muscles relaxed, myosin ready to bind but actin cannot bind)
ADP and Pi are initially bound to cross bridge of myosin (energized state)
Ca2+ binds to troponin, exposes actin
Myosin undergoes change in conformation and binds to actin, so Pi unbinds from myosin head angle < 90
pulls on actin “power stroke”, angle = 90
ADP unbinds
ATP binds to myosin head on binding site causing detachment to occur
ATP is hydrolyzed to ATP and Pi which brings the myosin head to the energized state again
Nonspecific Immune response/inflammation
• Occurs through cut or injury to the skin
• Sequence of events ensue to protect the body against infection
– Phagocytosis and recruitment
– Vasodilation and increase in permeability
– Phagocytic cells migration
– Tissue repair
During gastrulation, three germ layers form
– The inner germ layer is the endoderm and gives rise to the digestive tract, circulatory tract, and respiratory tract.
– The outer layer, the ectoderm, gives rise to the epidermis and nervous system.
– The middle layer, the mesoderm, contributes to bone, muscle, liver, heart, and blood vessels
Photosystem
Multiple antenna systems, surround reaction centers
Pigments packed together on thylakoids membrane proteins
Excitation energy passes from the pigments that absorb short wavelengths to those that absorb longer wavelengths, and ends up in the reaction center pigment
Alveolar type I cells
form the wall of the alveoli
ovarian cycle
- The ovarian cycle repeats about every 28 days.
- A woman’s fertile years total about 450 ovarian cycles. In each cycle in most cases, one oocyte matures and is released.
- The end of fertility (menopause) occurs at about age 50, and only a few oocytes are left in each ovary.
The Cardiovascular System
A closed system (blood always contained in blood vessels, always circulating) that consists of the heart, blood vessels, and the blood
– The heart pumps blood
– Blood vessels provide the path for the blood to travel (like a freeway)
– Blood carries nutrients and picks up wastes
Rough ER
Has ribosomes attached
Vasodilation & Increased Permeability
• Histamine causes vasodilation
– increases diameter, Increase in blood flow to infected area
– Redness occurs
– Increase delivery of proteins
– Edema occurs- swelling, fluid from blood cells into interstitial tissue
- increased permeability- proteins gain entry from blood to interstitial fluid
- objective- get more immune cells
Non cyclic electron transport
Light energy is used to oxidize water, produces O2, H+, and electrons
After excitation by light, Chl+ is an unstable molecule and seeks electrons
Chl+ is a stron oxidizing agent and takes electrons from water, splitting the water molecule
bulbourethral glands
produce a mucoid secretion that neutralizes acidity in the urethra and lubricates the tip of the penis
How is Carbon Dioxide Transported?
5-6% dissolved in plasma
5-8% bind to hemoglobin at a different binding site than oxygen
86-90% converted to hydrogen ions and bicarbonate by enzyme called carbonic anhydrase. When co2 goes up hydrogen ions go up and ph decreases, and vice versa. Want ph of 7.4
Energy transfer and electron transport
Light energy absorbed by antenna chlorophylls, and passed on to reaction center
Molecule goes to excited state
Energized electron from chlorophyll molecules passed to electron acceptor to reduce it
ATP
Adenosine triphosphate, is nucleotide
For capture, transfer, and storage of energy
Some free energy released by certain emergencies reactions is captured in ATP, which then can release energy to drive endergonic reactions
Hydrolysis: ATP+ H2O –> ADP + Pi + free energy
Can also be converted into building block for DNA and RNA
Formation of ATP is endergonic ADP+ Pi + free energy–> ATP + H2O
Where are these microorganisms?
They like moisture, food particles, want to get in blood vessels (from there they can travel all over the body)
Pathogens
Parasite
Bacteria
Protist
Fungi
Virus
Sperm anatomy
Acrosome- tip
Nucleus
Midpiece- contains mitochondria, Mitochondrial DNA from mother. When sperm goes into egg loses mitochondria
Tail- flagellum made of microtubules
DA
Dopamine
Inhibits prolactin release, so when there is no dopamine prolactin is released
The endocrine system
- Major communication system
- Consists of many glands located throughout the body
- Glands secrete hormones that act as chemical messengers
- Uses the blood as a medium to transport the hormones
- Each hormone has specific target cells
- Hormonal mechanisms can help us maintain homeostasis
B lymphocytes
Transform into plasma cells and release antibodies into the circulation, which are proteins that tag the pathogens to signal the immune cells to destroy it
Form memory cells- every pathogen has specific surface receptors (signature), they can remember for next time how to fight the infection
Soma
Also known as perikaryon or cell body
5-140 micrometer in diameter
Abundant protein synthesis organelles
Childbirth
- Passage of the baby is assisted by the mother’s bearing down with her abdominal muscles.
- Once the baby is clear of the birth canal it canstart breathing and become independent of the mother’s circulation, so the umbilical cord is clamped and cut.
- Finally, the placenta and fetal membranes are detached from the mother and expelled (several minutes–1 hour)
Nucleolus
Specialized region inside the nucleus where ribosomes are initially assembled
Alveolar type II cells
Secrete surfactant which keeps the alveoli from collapsing
Glycerol
3 OH groups (an alcohol)
Valves of the Heart
• Tricuspid valve
– Between the right atrium and the right ventricle
• Bicuspid valve
– Between the left atrium and the left ventricle
• Pulmonary valve
– Between the right ventricle and the pulmonary trunk
• Aortic valve
– Between the left ventricle and the aorta
Neurohypophysis
Posterior pituitary gland, Made of neurons, can also be called neural hypophysis
Cell bodies of neurons house in hypothalamus and only part of the axon and axon terminals are located in the posterior pituitary, hormones made of peptides synthesized in hypothalamus, are made in cells and stored in axon terminals
• Paraventricular nucleus and the supraoptic nucleus of the hypothalamussynthesize hormones that are stored in the terminals for later release
– Oxytocin
– Vasopressin (antidiuretic to prevent water loss and a vasoconstrictor)
urethra
the common duct for urinary and reproductive systems
Electrocardiogram graph
P wave- atrial depolarization(contraction) and electrical activities
QRS- Ventricular depolarization/contraction, much higher than atrial contraction because atria only have to pump to ventricle, but ventricle has to pump far
T- ventricular repolarization
Specific Recognition Between Sperm and Egg
- Specific recognition molecules mediate interactions between sperm and eggs.
- This ensures that activities of the sperm are directed toward eggs and not other cells and prevents eggs from being fertilized by sperm of the wrong species.
- This latter function is particularly importantin aquatic species, such as sea urchins, that release sperm and eggs into the surrounding water.
Anencephaly
failure of the neural tube to close at the anterior end and no forebrain develops
Layers of arteries vs layers of veins
Veins have bigger lumen, thinner tunica media, thinner tunica external, have valves
Chemoreceptors
Homeostatic mechanism: Chemoreceptors constantly measuring level of oxygen and co2, send signal through sensory nerve fibers
Need increased inspiration during exercise, or if holding breath (decrease oxygen availability and increase co2 availability)
• Peripheral
– Carotid bodies
– Aortic bodies
• Central- within nervous system, medulla oblongata
Cells of the nervous system
Neurons- excitable cells
Glial cells- support nervous cell function
Functions of the Respiratory System
- Provides oxygen
- Eliminates carbon dioxide
- Regulates pH level- More co2 you get rid of the more hydrogen ions you get rid of
- Speech production
- Defense against foreign bodies- non specific immunity
Cytotoxic T Cell
Release perform and granzymes
Induce apoptosis (Fas)
Attack cancer cells which stop mitosis regulation and keep dividing- they bond to these and release perforins that poke h ones in the membrane, eater can go in, releases granzymes in the hole or proteins that activate apoptosis
Leydig cells
Male sex hormones are produced by clusters of Leydig cells lying between the seminiferous tubules.
Dendrites
Many extensions from cell bodies
Receptive sites for electrical signal
How does photosynthesis convert light energy to chemical energy?
Reaction center converts light energy to chemical energy
Excited chlorophyll a molecule (Chl*) is a reducing agent (electron donor)
A is an acceptor molecule (oxidizing agent)
Chl* + A –> Chl+ + A-
A is the first in a chain of electron carriers on the thylakoid membrane (electron transport) a series of redox reactions
Final electron acceptor is NADP+
NADP+ + e- –> NADPH + H+
Bacteria
Unicellular prokaryotes
What causes muscle fatigue?
Local increase of inorganic phosphate from ATP synthesis
Build up of lactic acid and (hydrogen ions) from fermentation due to no oxygen
Depletion of energy (ATP)
Lymphoid tissues
Adenoids, tonsils, thymus, lymph noes, spleen, bone marrow, lymphatic vessels
Immune cells originate here, majorly from bone marrow
immune cells are scattered all over, but they are clustered in certain areas in case of infection
Myeloid progenitor cells
Blood/platelets or immune cells produced
Types of immune cells:
Granular cells- neutrophils, mast cells
agranular cells- monocytes, macrophages,
Digestive system
breaks down food you eat and delivers it to your cells, breaks down large molecules into smaller units, need to bring food into our cells, absorption takes food into circulation so it is accessible to our cells
Calvin and benson
Used 14C radioisotope to determine the sequence of reactions in CO2 fixation
Exposed chlorella to 14CO2 then extracted the organic compounds and separated them by paper chromatography
3 second exposure of chlorella to 14CO2 revealed that the first compound to be formed is 3PG, a 3 carbon sugar phosphate
Waxes
Highly nonpolar and impermeable to water
Ester linkage between saturated long chain fatty acid and a saturated long chain alcohol
Function of the DigestiveSystem
- Breaks down the food we eat, breaking the covalent bonds that make up large molecules
- Absorbs the food to transfer it to cells
- Food can be used with oxygen to produce energy
- travels from digestive system into blood, so it can be accessible to our cells
Allosteric regulation
Effector molecule binds to a regulatory subunit inducing the enzyme to change its shape, can inhibit or activate the enzyme
Within a certain range, reaction rates of allosteric enzymes are sensitive to small changes in substrate concentration (s shaped curve), more active sites
Compliance
Ability to change volume and pressure
Balloon is like the lungs- highly compliant
Paper bag- not compliant
Glyoxisomes
Structurally similar organelles found in plants that convert lipids to carbs (fats to sugars)
Muscles of Expiration
• Passive expiration
– Elastic recoil of the lungs
• Active expiration
– Contraction of internal intercostals
– Contraction of abdominal muscles (causesdiaphragm to be pushed up)
Phagocytosis & Recruitment
- Macrophages in the nearby tissue detect bacteria using receptor proteins to engulf them
- Macrophages release cytokines- chemicals for recruitment
- Mast cells release histamine- causes vasodilation
- Injured cells release chemotaxins- chemo attractants to attract immune cells
Bacteria
Unicellular prokaryotes
Photo system 1
Light energy reduces NADP+ to NADPH
Reaction center has chlorophyll a molecules: P700 absorbs in the 700nm range
Catabolic reactions
Complex molecules are broken down into simpler ones and energy is released, delta G is negative, delta S is positive
Ex: hydrolysis of protein to its amino acids
Dunedin
Microtubules cross linked by the spokes of this motor protein
Changes shape when energy is released from ATP, move vesicles toward minus end
Second trimester
limbs elongate and facial features form
Lymphoid tissues
Adenoids, tonsils, thymus, lymph noes, spleen, bone marrow, lymphatic vessels
Immune cells originate here, majorly from bone marrow
immune cells are scattered all over, but they are clustered in certain areas in case of infection
Gametes
- The gonads (testes and ovaries) are the sites of gametogenesis.
- Male gametes (sperm) move by beating flagella; female gametes (eggs or ova) arenonmotile.
Immunization
Series of shots
MMR- immunization shot against meals, mumps, rubella
Small quantity of pathogens to build immune response, memory cells to speed up recovery next time
Pathogens
Parasite
Bacteria
Protist
Fungi
Virus
Polysaccharides
Polymers of monosaccharides
Starch, glycogen, cellulose
Entry of Sperm into the Egg
- In animals with internal fertilization, egg–sperm recognition mechanisms also exist.
- In the female reproductive tract, mammalian sperm are metabolically activated and attracted to the egg in the oviduct, but also aided in their movement by muscular contractions.
- The mammalian egg is surrounded by a thick layer called the cumulus. Beneath that is a protein envelope called the zona pellucida.
- A species-specific glycoprotein in the zona pellucida binds to the head of the sperm.
- The acrosomal reaction is triggered, releasing acrosomal enzymes that digest a path through the zona pellucida
Immunization
Series of shots
MMR- immunization shot against meals, mumps, rubella
Small quantity of pathogens to build immune response, memory cells to speed up recovery next time
DNA bases
Adenine/guanine = purines
Cytocine/thymine = pyrimidines
A-T and C-G, bond by hydrogen bonding
Stoma
Mouth of plant
Co2 enters and O2/water exit through these pores
Fluorescence
When a pigment returns to ground state some of the energy may be given off as heat and some as fluorescence
Fluorescence has longer wavelengths and less energy than the absorbed light energy
No chemical work done
If pigment can pass the energy to another molecule, there’s no fluorescence, the energy can be passed to a reaction center where it is converted to chemical energy
Pressure and Volume Change
During inspiration the volume of the lungs increases and the pressure decreases- atmospheric pressure is higher than alveolar pressure, and diffusion can occur
During expiration, the volume of the lungs decreases and the pressure increases- alveolar pressure becomes higher than atmospheric pressure- diffusion outwards
Different contributions to the zygote:
- Sperm: DNA and a centriole, in somespecies.
* Egg: DNA, organelles, nutrients, transcription factors, mRNAs.
Vein
Carry blood back to the heart
Have thinner walls than arteries
Small branches are called venules
Not elastic, have low pressure
Thin and collapsed
Immunization
Series of shots
MMR- immunization shot against meals, mumps, rubella
Small quantity of pathogens to build immune response, memory cells to speed up recovery next time
Ruben and kamen
Used radioisotope tracers (O18 and O16) to determine that water was the source of O2 released during photosynthesis rather than CO2
Chemical bond
Attractive force that links atoms together to form molecules
All chemical bonds involve changes in the relationships of electrons one with the other
Phagocytic cell migration
- The cytokines released by macrophages signal the endothelial cells to express selectin
- Margination occurs- dock and fuse with membrane, carbohydrate ligands on macrophages bind to selectin in blood vessel, move in blood vessel by rolling
- Phagocytic cells produce integrin on their membrane
- Stronger attachment occurs- immune cells are allowed to slow down and exit
- Phagocytic cells begin to move from the blood to the infected area in a process known as diapedisis
- Once in the interstitial fluid, phagocytic cells are attracted to the site of injury by chemotaxins- tell phagocytic cells exactly where to go
Branching of the airways
Conducting zone: trachea, primary bronchi, secondary bronchi, tertiary bronchi, bronchioles
Respiratory zone: respiratory bronchioles, alveoli (each alveolus is covered with many capillaries to facilitate the exchange of materials)
Fluorescence
When a pigment returns to ground state some of the energy may be given off as heat and some as fluorescence
Fluorescence has longer wavelengths and less energy than the absorbed light energy
No chemical work done
If pigment can pass the energy to another molecule, there’s no fluorescence, the energy can be passed to a reaction center where it is converted to chemical energy
Rods
Sensitive to light
Respond to low illumination, any low amount of light will trigger them to have electrical activity
Can’t see colors or features
Chemoreceptors
Homeostatic mechanism: Chemoreceptors constantly measuring level of oxygen and co2, send signal through sensory nerve fibers
Need increased inspiration during exercise, or if holding breath (decrease oxygen availability and increase co2 availability)
• Peripheral
– Carotid bodies
– Aortic bodies
• Central- within nervous system, medulla oblongata
Path of sperm
- To achieve fertilization, sperm swim up the vagina, assisted by contractions of the female reproductive tract.
- The sperm then pass through the cervix and most of the oviduct to the egg (secondary oocyte) in the upper oviduct.
- Egg and sperm nucleus (both haploid) fuse to produce the diploid zygote.
Flagella
Locomotory structures shaped like corkscrew
Some prokaryotes have this
Two systems of electron transport
Non cyclic electron transport- produces NADPH and ATP
Cyclic electron transport- produces ATP only
- when you need more sugar you need more ATP than NADH, so cyclic transport is needed
Carrier proteins
Membrane proteins that bind some substances and speed their diffusion through the bilayer
Polar molecules such a glucose- glucose binds to protein which causes it to change shape and release glucose on the other side, but as transporters become saturated, the rate of diffusion into the cells slows down
Nuclear lamina
Meshwork of proteins which maintains the shape of the nuclear envelope and the nucleus
Electron microscope
Use electromagnets to focus an electron beam, wavelength is much shorter than light so much higher resolution .5 nm
When a photon meets a molecule it can be-
Scattered- photon bounces off the molecule
Transmitted- photon passed through the molecule
Absorbed- molecule squires the energy of the photon. Goes from ground state to excited state, and disappears and energy is absorbed
Intermediate filaments
Fund in multicellular organisms, form rope like structures in cells
Stabilize cell strucuture and resist tension
Can maintain the positions of organelles
Lamins provide structural support to the nuclear membrane
Supraoptic nucleus
Makes vasopressin
Anti diuretic hormone,prevents water loss. Target organ is kidneys where we have water control
Resolution
Limiting factor in all microscopes, need high resolution to see detail
Stroma
Fluid in which grana are suspended in chloroplasts
Erythrocytes
- Transport gases in the body
- Biconcave discs
- Flat size to increase diffusion- huge surface area
- Produced in the bone marrow
- Regulated by erythropoitin
- no organelles, like a cargo van for nutrients
- Short life span- 120 days
- Packed with hemoglobin (type of protein bound to iron), each has 250 million hemoglobin with 4 oxygen molecules
- Its formation depends on folic acid and B12
Smooth ER
Ribosome free region
Anencephaly
failure of the neural tube to close at the anterior end and no forebrain develops
Blastocyst
When blastula reaches 16 to 32 cells, it divides into two groups:
- Inner cell mass: becomes the embryo
- Trophoblast: a sac that forms from the outer cells. Its cells secrete fluid and create the blastocoel, with the inner cell mass at one end. Embryo is now called a blastocyst.
How do we study organelles?
First studied using light microscopy
Cell fractionation separates organelles for study by chemical methods (spin tubes of cells with rotor)
Photosystem 2
Light energy oxidizes water to oxygen, H+, and electrons
Reaction center has chlorophyll a molecules: P680 absorbs at 680 nm (more energetic than P700)
Excited first
Irreversible inhibition
Inhibitor covalently bonds to side chains in the active site and permanently inactivates the enzyme
Ex: DIPF or nerve gas
Genes
Sequences of DNA that encode specific proteins
Genes
Sequences of DNA that encode specific proteins
Simple diffusion
Smile molecules pass through the lipid bilayer
Water and lipid soluble molecules can diffuse across the membrane
Electrically charged and polar molecules cannot pass through easily
Lipids
Non polar hydrocarbons
Van der waals forces- not polymers in strict sense because they are not covalently bonded
Thick filaments
Each filament made of arranged myosin molecules
Myosin molecules each have two heads and two tails, each head has actin and ATP binding site
Bind to thin filaments at actin binding site, ATP binding site breaks down ATP, gets energy
Activity occurs at cross bridge
Titan connects thick filaments to z line
Cellulose
Very stable, good for structural components
Linear
Cristae
Folds of the inner membrane give rise to these
Contains large protein molecules used in cellular respiration
Photosynthetic prokaryotes
Some bacteria, including Cyanobacteria can do carry on photosynthesis
Plasma membrane is unfolded and has chlorophyll
What stops the cycle
Two major steps:
remove acetylcholine- esterase breaks down acetylcholine, but it’s not gone forever, action potential can release more it just needs to be temporarily deactivated
remove calcium- Ca2+ pumped back to SR by active transport by pump on SR
Lumen
Cavity within blood vessel
Lungs and the mechanisms of the chest
Easy, effortless to breath because of the mechanics of the lungs- always slightly inflated to make inspiration easier
Lungs attached to chest wall and inner layer of your rib cage by very thin set of membranes called a pleural sac
Ribs protect your lungs and work in synchrony with them, chest expands and increase in volume along with your lungs
Two systems of electron transport
Non cyclic electron transport- produces NADPH and ATP
Cyclic electron transport- produces ATP only
- when you need more sugar you need more ATP than NADH, so cyclic transport is needed
Photosystem
Multiple antenna systems, surround reaction centers
Pigments packed together on thylakoids membrane proteins
Excitation energy passes from the pigments that absorb short wavelengths to those that absorb longer wavelengths, and ends up in the reaction center pigment
System of respiration
Constant exchange of air: ventilation (tidal volume)
Diffusion- oxygen from lungs to blood
Circulation- bulk transport
Diffusion of oxygen into cells
Cellular respiration
Complement system
Pore formation: First complement protein (inactive), cascade of protein activation in bacterial cell
Swelling: fluid rushes into cells
Lysis
Steps of fertilization
– The sperm and egg recognize each other.
– The sperm is activated so that it can gain access to the plasma membrane of the egg.
– The plasma membranes of the sperm and egg fuse.
– The egg blocks entry of additional sperm.
– The egg is stimulated to start development.
– The egg and sperm nuclei fuse
epididymis
- From the lumen of the seminiferous tubules, sperm move to the epididymis, a storage sac, where theymature.
- The epididymis connects to the urethra via the vas deferens
Blastomere
- Blastomeres become determined, or committed toa specific fate, at different times in different animals.
- Roundworm and clam blastomeres are already determined at the 8-cell stage.
- If one cell is removed, a portion of the embryo fails to develop normally. This is called mosaic development.
- Humans have regulative development. If some cells are lost during cleavage, other cells can compensate. For genetic testing in humans, one cell can be removed from a blastula following in vitro fertilization. If there are no mutations in the gene of interest, that blastula can be implanted
Path of sperm
- To achieve fertilization, sperm swim up the vagina, assisted by contractions of the female reproductive tract.
- The sperm then pass through the cervix and most of the oviduct to the egg (secondary oocyte) in the upper oviduct.
- Egg and sperm nucleus (both haploid) fuse to produce the diploid zygote.
Physical barriers
Skin- brick layers of cells, most pathogens can’t get through it, also produces a hard and fibrous protein called keratin. The closest layer to the surface has the highest amount of keratin- the outermost layer of skin is dead, it produced too much keratin to function
Fibrous layer of the eyes
Mucous membrane of the respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive systems, and ear- thick membrane that prevents pathogens from getting into the circulation
Cilia
Golgi apparatus
Has flattened membrane sacs and small membrane enclosed vesicles
trophoblast
- In mammals, the first extraembryonic membrane to form is the trophoblast.
- When the blastocyst hatches from the zona pellucida, the trophoblast cells attach to the uterine wall, This is the beginning of implantation.
- The trophoblast becomes part of the uterine wall, and sends out villi to increase surface area and contact with maternal blood.
Action spectrum
Plot of biological activity as a function of exposure to varied wavelengths of light
Ionic bonds
Formed by the electrical attraction of positive and negative ions
Metabolism
Sum of all chemical reactions in an organism
Humoral mechanism
way of triggering, gland measuring concentration of certain things in your blood
Calcium in blood must be maintained at a constant level in blood, important for neurotransmitters and muscle contraction, heart, messenger, etc. so need constant level. Get ca from diet and store it in our blood. If goes below the normal level we must bring it back up. Behind thyroid gland there is are 4 tiny glands called parathyroid glands (acts as control center), main function is to maintain calcium homeostasis, monitor calcium level in blood and releases parathyroid hormone if too low, is peptide hormone. Target organ is bones (where we store calcium) , bone cells respond to it and release calcium into the circulation, active until ca back to normal, negative feedback mechanism
Different contributions to the zygote:
- Sperm: DNA and a centriole, in somespecies.
* Egg: DNA, organelles, nutrients, transcription factors, mRNAs.
Z scheme
Model of noncyclic electron transport
Extracts electrons from water and transfers them to NADPH, using energy from photosynthesis one and two and resulting in ATP synthesis
Yields ATP, NADPH, and O2
Primary active transport
Requires direct hydrolysis of ATP
Gas transport through membranes
Oxygen has to cross alveoli and membrane of the capillaries to get into the plasma, and then another membrane to get inside the red blood cells
Loading phase- hemoglobin picks up oxygen
Unloading phase- release oxygen into your tissues to use, takes into mitochondria to produce ATP
Synapse
Two neurons form a junction called synapse
Per synaptic neurons sends the signal, post synaptic neuron receives the signal
Neuron can send or receive many signals
Non cyclic electron transport
Light energy is used to oxidize water, produces O2, H+, and electrons
After excitation by light, Chl+ is an unstable molecule and seeks electrons
Chl+ is a stron oxidizing agent and takes electrons from water, splitting the water molecule
Branching of the airways
Conducting zone: trachea, primary bronchi, secondary bronchi, tertiary bronchi, bronchioles
Respiratory zone: respiratory bronchioles, alveoli (each alveolus is covered with many capillaries to facilitate the exchange of materials)
Nucleolus
Specialized region inside the nucleus where ribosomes are initially assembled
Diffusion
Process of random movement toward equilibrium
Net movement from regions of greater concentration to regions of lesser concentration
Works well over short distances
affected by membrane properties- permeable to salutes that move easily across it, impermeable to those that can’t
Non cyclic electron transport
Light energy is used to oxidize water, produces O2, H+, and electrons
After excitation by light, Chl+ is an unstable molecule and seeks electrons
Chl+ is a stron oxidizing agent and takes electrons from water, splitting the water molecule
Heart as a muscle
Needs to contract and relax
When heart contracts, blood comes out, relaxing is when heart is filling up with blood (output and input)
Path of the egg
the mature egg is released into the body cavity and is swept into the end of the oviduct (Fallopian tube) by an undulating fringe of tissue (Fertilization takes place in the oviduct and, in humans, the second meiotic division takes place)
Cilia lining the oviduct propel the fertilized or unfertilized egg toward the uterus, a muscular, thick-walled cavity
The opening at the bottom of the uterus is the cervix,which leads into the vagina
How is Carbon Dioxide Transported?
5-6% dissolved in plasma
5-8% bind to hemoglobin at a different binding site than oxygen
86-90% converted to hydrogen ions and bicarbonate by enzyme called carbonic anhydrase. When co2 goes up hydrogen ions go up and ph decreases, and vice versa. Want ph of 7.4
Alveolar type I cells
form the wall of the alveoli
Physical barriers
Skin- brick layers of cells, most pathogens can’t get through it, also produces a hard and fibrous protein called keratin. The closest layer to the surface has the highest amount of keratin- the outermost layer of skin is dead, it produced too much keratin to function
Fibrous layer of the eyes
Mucous membrane of the respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive systems, and ear- thick membrane that prevents pathogens from getting into the circulation
Cilia
GHRH
Growth hormone releasing hormone
Stimulates release of GH
Integral membrane proteins
Hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions
Sme extend across the lipid bilayer and others are partially embedded
Lungs and the mechanisms of the chest
Easy, effortless to breath because of the mechanics of the lungs- always slightly inflated to make inspiration easier
Lungs attached to chest wall and inner layer of your rib cage by very thin set of membranes called a pleural sac
Ribs protect your lungs and work in synchrony with them, chest expands and increase in volume along with your lungs
Hypertonic solution
Higher solute concentration
AIDS
Acquired immune deficiency syndrome, viruses attack immune cells, vulnerable system open to opportunistic infection
Plasma membrane
Outer surface of every cell, more or less same structure in every cell
Phospholipid bilayer with proteins and other molecules imbedded
Oily fluid in which proteins and lipids are in constant motion
Chloroplasts
Sites where photosynthesis occurs, one type of plastid
Surrounded by two layers and have interal membrane system
Phagocytic cell migration
- The cytokines released by macrophages signal the endothelial cells to express selectin
- Margination occurs- dock and fuse with membrane, carbohydrate ligands on macrophages bind to selectin in blood vessel, move in blood vessel by rolling
- Phagocytic cells produce integrin on their membrane
- Stronger attachment occurs- immune cells are allowed to slow down and exit
- Phagocytic cells begin to move from the blood to the infected area in a process known as diapedisis
- Once in the interstitial fluid, phagocytic cells are attracted to the site of injury by chemotaxins- tell phagocytic cells exactly where to go
Action spectrum
Plot of biological activity as a function of exposure to varied wavelengths of light
Bone marrow
Produces mulitpotent hematopoietic cell, which in return can be a myeloid or a lymphoid progenitor cel
Stem cells- have not differentiated yet, blood stem cells can become blood cells
Hemoglobin
Hemoglobin is a metal (iron) that is positively charged, and oxygen negatively charged, so they bind
Hypothalamus
Below thalamus
Homeostasis, such as temperature control, thirst, urine output, food intake
Endocrine role- has glands secretes hormones on bloodstream to control body
Regulation of sleep wake cycle
Formation of memory
Communicates with kidney, drives thirst
The esophagus
• Muscular tube
• Upper esophageal sphincter is located proximally
• Lower esophageal sphincter is distal
(Food needs to unidirectionally, so has sphincters which are rings of smooth muscles )
• Peristaltic waves pushfood down
Alveolar type II cells
Secrete surfactant which keeps the alveoli from collapsing
Phosphodiester linkages
Bonds sugar and phosphate to form backbone of DNA and RNA
Like carbon 3 and carbon 5
Two strands of DNA run in opposite directions
Circulatory system
blood vessels and heart, circulation ensures cells are constantly getting the oxygen that they need
Energy
Capacity to do work
Temperature control
Receptor will sense this temperature with temp monitoring nerve cells (thermoreceptors, reporting cells, all over our skin, in core body to sense internal temp)
send this to control center (hypothalamus, has set point that compares info to, standard set point for temp is 98.6), makes decision that it does not match the set point
Effectors- skeletal muscles move and use ATP and produces heat, so you shiver to heat up body, also blood vessels constrict (vasoconstriction) lowers flow of blood to surface, which carries heat, and you minimize heat loss through skin
Negative feedback mechanism- started with a temperature decrease and counteracting the environment
Diversity in sexual reproduction
- Despite the time, energy, and risk required, sexual (compared to asexual- Asexual, cells divide. Hard to get genetic university except for mutations) reproduction confers an overwhelming advantage: the production of genetic diversity.
- Sexual reproduction requires the joining of two haploid (1n) cells into one, which becomes a diploid (2n) individual.
- These haploid cells, or gametes, are produced by gametogenesis, involving 2 meiotic cell divisions.
Denaturation
Loss of a protein’s normal 3D structure
Thin filaments
Actin is contractile protein, while troponin and tropomyosin regulate the cycle, when the muscle is at rest they block the actin so that the myosin cannot bind to it
Monocytes/macrophages
Monocytes are inactive form, on patrol, macrophages are active, they attack
Engulf and digest
Activate T cells
Once monocytes enter tissue they become macrophages
Secondary active transport
Energy comes from an ion concentration gradient that is established by primary active transport
Energy can be “regained” by letting ions move across a membrane with the concentration gradient
Aids in uptake of amino acids and sugars
Uses symporters and antiporters
Lungs and the mechanisms of the chest
Easy, effortless to breath because of the mechanics of the lungs- always slightly inflated to make inspiration easier
Lungs attached to chest wall and inner layer of your rib cage by very thin set of membranes called a pleural sac
Ribs protect your lungs and work in synchrony with them, chest expands and increase in volume along with your lungs
Path of sperm
- To achieve fertilization, sperm swim up the vagina, assisted by contractions of the female reproductive tract.
- The sperm then pass through the cervix and most of the oviduct to the egg (secondary oocyte) in the upper oviduct.
- Egg and sperm nucleus (both haploid) fuse to produce the diploid zygote.
Air composition
78.1% nitrogen (goes into lungs and leaves), 20.9% oxygen
Total atmospheric pressure= 760 mmHg (Pressure= concentration)- Patm = PN2 + PO2
Temperature and altitude changes atmospheric pressure
Partial pressure of N2 = 760 mmHg x 0.781 ~ 600 mmHg
Partial pressure of O2 = 760 mmHg x 0.21 ~ 160mmHg
We breathe very easily, so partial pressure in lungs should be lower, so process of diffusion is easy. 100 mm mercury
Light independent reactions
“dark reactions”
Use ATP and NADH from light reactions plus CO2 to produce carbohydrates (because coenzymes ATP and NADH are not stored, need light for light reaction first)
Fungi
Yeast is a unicellular form
Ex: athlete’s foot
What Affects Hb-OxygenBinding?
Demands for oxygen changing depending on your state. (if sitting, cells in legs not picking up that much oxygen) so ATP production chants, and more ATP produced the more oxygen you get delivered. Waste products signify how much ATP you are making so your red blood cells know.
- BPG (2,3 Bisphosphoglyceric acid)- BPG by product of glycolysis- when increases, unload more oxygen.
- Temperature
- Acidity- lactic acid is byproduct of fermentation
Steps in neurulation
- The ectoderm over the notochord thickens and forms the neural plate.
- Edges of the neural plate fold and a deep groove forms.
- The folds fuse, forming the neural tube and a layer of ectoderm, The anterior end of the neural tube becomes the brain, the rest becomes the spinal cord
G3P
Gylceraldehyde 3 phosphate
5/6 recycled into RuBP
1/6 converted to starch and sucrose to make glucose and fructose
bulbourethral glands
produce a mucoid secretion that neutralizes acidity in the urethra and lubricates the tip of the penis
prostate gland
produces the thin, milky fluid thatmakes up the rest of the volume of semen
Prostate fluid makes the uterine environment morehospitable to sperm and converts the semen, by
enzyme action on the fibrinogen, into a gelatinous
mass
Anencephaly
failure of the neural tube to close at the anterior end and no forebrain develops
Physical barriers
Skin- brick layers of cells, most pathogens can’t get through it, also produces a hard and fibrous protein called keratin. The closest layer to the surface has the highest amount of keratin- the outermost layer of skin is dead, it produced too much keratin to function
Fibrous layer of the eyes
Mucous membrane of the respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive systems, and ear- thick membrane that prevents pathogens from getting into the circulation
Cilia
third trimester
internal organs mature and organ systems begin to function
The last organs to mature before birthare the lungs
Steps of fertilization
– The sperm and egg recognize each other.
– The sperm is activated so that it can gain access to the plasma membrane of the egg.
– The plasma membranes of the sperm and egg fuse.
– The egg blocks entry of additional sperm.
– The egg is stimulated to start development.
– The egg and sperm nuclei fuse
Glycerol
3 OH groups (an alcohol)
Diffusion rate depends on
Diameter of molecules or ions
Temperature of solution
Concentration gradient
Muscles of Expiration
• Passive expiration
– Elastic recoil of the lungs
• Active expiration
– Contraction of internal intercostals
– Contraction of abdominal muscles (causesdiaphragm to be pushed up)
What happens at rest?
Na+ and K+ leak channels open
Na+ K+ pump always pumping in order to maintain concentration gradient
Some leakage but no net activity in any direction
Greater permeability for potassium than sodium
Nonspecific immunity
Prevention
Attack- if it gets in the circulatory system
Gas transport through membranes
Oxygen has to cross alveoli and membrane of the capillaries to get into the plasma, and then another membrane to get inside the red blood cells
Loading phase- hemoglobin picks up oxygen
Unloading phase- release oxygen into your tissues to use, takes into mitochondria to produce ATP
Hemoglobin
Hemoglobin is a metal (iron) that is positively charged, and oxygen negatively charged, so they bind
Extracellular matrix
Composed of fibrous proteins (like collagen) and glycoproteins
Epithelial cells (lining human body cavities) have basement membrane of extracellular material called the basal lamina
Steps in neurulation
- The ectoderm over the notochord thickens and forms the neural plate.
- Edges of the neural plate fold and a deep groove forms.
- The folds fuse, forming the neural tube and a layer of ectoderm, The anterior end of the neural tube becomes the brain, the rest becomes the spinal cord
Hormonal mechanism
Endocrine organs are put into action by other hormones
What triggers the pancreas to increase its contents?
Duodenum senses specific molecules in the diet and cells are triggered to start the process of release, two hormones released from the duodenum
- secretin acts on duct cells, stomach acid can be neutralized by the bicarbonate released
- Cholecystokinin (CCK) travels in the circulation to activate acinar cells to release pancreatic juice and enzymes in vesicles that break down protein and fat
Ventricular diastole
heart is in relaxed state and ventricles are filling up its blood coming from the left and right atrium
Blood aided by gravity (80%) before atria even contracts
Aortic and pulmonary valves are closed
Bicuspid and tricuspid valves are open
Organization of the immune system
Nonspecific immune response- protects against foreign substances without having to recognize their identity
Specific immune response- highly specific, usually a major problem that your body is really trying to fight
Diffusion
Chemical driving force
Electricity in our body: movement of ions from high to low concentration
Calvin and benson
Used 14C radioisotope to determine the sequence of reactions in CO2 fixation
Exposed chlorella to 14CO2 then extracted the organic compounds and separated them by paper chromatography
3 second exposure of chlorella to 14CO2 revealed that the first compound to be formed is 3PG, a 3 carbon sugar phosphate
trophoblast
- In mammals, the first extraembryonic membrane to form is the trophoblast.
- When the blastocyst hatches from the zona pellucida, the trophoblast cells attach to the uterine wall, This is the beginning of implantation.
- The trophoblast becomes part of the uterine wall, and sends out villi to increase surface area and contact with maternal blood.
Paraventricular nucleus
Para ventricular nucleus makes mostly oxytocin. Oxytocin acts on smooth muscles of uterus and smooth muscles in mammary glands. Labor and lactation
Diversity in sexual reproduction
- Despite the time, energy, and risk required, sexual (compared to asexual- Asexual, cells divide. Hard to get genetic university except for mutations) reproduction confers an overwhelming advantage: the production of genetic diversity.
- Sexual reproduction requires the joining of two haploid (1n) cells into one, which becomes a diploid (2n) individual.
- These haploid cells, or gametes, are produced by gametogenesis, involving 2 meiotic cell divisions.
Stomach lumen
Inner layer of stomach, in contact with food
Rugae- Folds that increase surface areas to increase the rate of diffusion
Mucosa is outer layer that contains gastric pits, submucosa layer underneath
Contralateral
Left side of body controlled by right side of brain
speech, speaking and comprehending, is only from left side, everything else is bilateral
Light independent reactions
“dark reactions”
Use ATP and NADH from light reactions plus CO2 to produce carbohydrates (because coenzymes ATP and NADH are not stored, need light for light reaction first)
Parts of the respiratory system
Nasal/oral cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, primary/secondary/tertiary bronchus, bronchioles (if you don’t need a lot of oxygen bronchioles are slightly constricted), alveoli (site of exchange)
All made of cartilage up to the trachea
Saturation of animal fats and plant oils
Animal fats: saturated
Plant oils: unsaturated
B lymphocytes
Transform into plasma cells and release antibodies into the circulation, which are proteins that tag the pathogens to signal the immune cells to destroy it
Form memory cells- every pathogen has specific surface receptors (signature), they can remember for next time how to fight the infection
DNA and evolution
DNA carries hereditary information between generations
Determining sequence of bases helps reveal evolutionary relationships
Closest living relatives of humans are chimps and bonobo
The esophagus
• Muscular tube
• Upper esophageal sphincter is located proximally
• Lower esophageal sphincter is distal
(Food needs to unidirectionally, so has sphincters which are rings of smooth muscles )
• Peristaltic waves pushfood down
Chloroplasts
Sites where photosynthesis occurs, one type of plastid
Surrounded by two layers and have interal membrane system
Enzymes as catalysts
Lower the energy barrer by bringing the reactants together
Final equilibrium doesn’t change and G doesn’t change
3D shape of the enzyme determines the specificity, depends on precise interlock (“lock and key”- Emil Fischer)
Most enzymes are much larger than their substrate
David Phillips observed pocket in the enzyme lysozyme that fit its substrate using X-ray crystallography
Blastocoel
a central fluid-filled cavity that forms in the ball of cells
The embryo becomes a blastula and its cells are called blastomeres
Hemoglobin
Hemoglobin is a metal (iron) that is positively charged, and oxygen negatively charged, so they bind
Layers of the eyes
Neural- neurons, synapses, electrical activity
Vascular- blood vessels to nourish eye
Fibrous- thick fibers for protection, muscle attachment, eye movement
Gas transport through membranes
Oxygen has to cross alveoli and membrane of the capillaries to get into the plasma, and then another membrane to get inside the red blood cells
Loading phase- hemoglobin picks up oxygen
Unloading phase- release oxygen into your tissues to use, takes into mitochondria to produce ATP
Brush Border Enzymes
Not released into cavity of small intestine, found on surface of microvilli
• Enterokinase
– Activates trypsinogen, (proteolitic enzyme coming from the pancreas) then trypsin activates everything else
• Disaccharidases
– breaks down disaccharides- Maltase, sucrase, lactase
• Aminopeptidases
– Hydrolyzes peptide fragments (dipeptides or very small peptides) to aminoacids
Microfilaments
Made of protein actin, can be single filaments or networks
Needed for cell contraction (as in muscle cells, associated with myosin for muscle contraction), also add structure to plasma membrane and shape to cells
Involved in cytoplasmic streaming and formation of pseudopodia
Polar, polymerizes to form long helical chains
Photosynthesis in noncyclic electron electron transport
Each photosystem consists of several chlorophyll and accessory pigment molecules
Complement each other, must be constantly absorbing light energy to power noncyclic electron transport
Aquaporins
Special water channels for water to cross a membrane with
Also can cross by hitch hiking with other molecules
Secondary lysosome
Phagosomes fuse with primary lysosomes to form secondary lysosomes
Enzymes hydrolyze the food molecules
Cilia
Shorter, present in great numbers
Lymphoid progenitor cells
Form into B lymphocytes, T lymphocytes
Flagella
Locomotory structures shaped like corkscrew
Some prokaryotes have this
Unsaturated fatty acids
Some double bonds in carbon chain
Double bonds prevent tight packing, lipid monlayer more fluid, liquid at room temperature
Monounsaturated: one double bond
Polyunsaturated: more than one
Cyclic electron transport
Electron from excited P700 chlorophyll molecule n photosystem one cycles back to the same chlorophyll molecule
Involves a series of exergonic redox reactions, the released energy creates a proton gradient that is used to synthesize ATP
Twinning
- If blastomeres separate into two groups, each can produce an embryo.
- Monozygotic twins come from the same zygote and are identical.
- Nonidentical twins are from two eggs fertilized by two sperm.
Sterile cotton swab
Collect microorganisms by smearing on surface
Put on a culture dish with solution called tryptic soy agar, which has nutrients that make bacteria reproduce so you can see them
How Are Gases Transported?
• Once in the blood, oxygen is transported in two ways
– 1.5% is dissolved in the plasma and cytosol of erythrocytes
– 98.5 % Bound to hemoglobin
Childbirth
- Passage of the baby is assisted by the mother’s bearing down with her abdominal muscles.
- Once the baby is clear of the birth canal it canstart breathing and become independent of the mother’s circulation, so the umbilical cord is clamped and cut.
- Finally, the placenta and fetal membranes are detached from the mother and expelled (several minutes–1 hour)
Nuclear pores
In the nuclear envelope, connect the interior of the nucleus with the rest of the cytoplasm
Pore complex- 8 large protein granules surround each pore
RNA and proteins must pass through these pores to enter or leave the nucleus
Fungi
Yeast is a unicellular form
Ex: athlete’s foot
Pressure change
Breathing associated with skeletal muscles that are constantly contracting and relaxing, gases are quantified by pressur
Atmospheric pressure (Patm)- pressure on the outside in the environment
Alveolar pressure (Palv)-pressure inside your lungs
Intrapleural pressure (Pip)- pressure in pleural sac, fills up with fluid that exerts pressure
Alveolar and interpleural pressure are constantly fluctuating because they depend on your state
Classification of muscles
Muscles are contractile tissue, 700 in body
3 types:
Skeletal (voluntary)
Smooth(involuntary)- located around organs/viscera/vessels
Cardiac(involuntary)- heart muscles
What Affects Hb-OxygenBinding?
Demands for oxygen changing depending on your state. (if sitting, cells in legs not picking up that much oxygen) so ATP production chants, and more ATP produced the more oxygen you get delivered. Waste products signify how much ATP you are making so your red blood cells know.
- BPG (2,3 Bisphosphoglyceric acid)- BPG by product of glycolysis- when increases, unload more oxygen.
- Temperature
- Acidity- lactic acid is byproduct of fermentation
PRL
Prolactin
Hormone responsible for milk production
Target cell: mammary glands
Z scheme
Model of noncyclic electron transport
Extracts electrons from water and transfers them to NADPH, using energy from photosynthesis one and two and resulting in ATP synthesis
Yields ATP, NADPH, and O2
Action spectrum
Plot of biological activity as a function of exposure to varied wavelengths of light
Microfilaments
Made of protein actin, can be single filaments or networks
Needed for cell contraction (as in muscle cells, associated with myosin for muscle contraction), also add structure to plasma membrane and shape to cells
Involved in cytoplasmic streaming and formation of pseudopodia
Polar, polymerizes to form long helical chains
Microbes
Harmful substances, living or dead
Lungs and the mechanisms of the chest
Easy, effortless to breath because of the mechanics of the lungs- always slightly inflated to make inspiration easier
Lungs attached to chest wall and inner layer of your rib cage by very thin set of membranes called a pleural sac
Ribs protect your lungs and work in synchrony with them, chest expands and increase in volume along with your lungs
Selective permeability
Membranes allow some substances to pass through but not others
Facilitated diffusion of polar molecules
Passive transport of polar molecules
How is Carbon Dioxide Transported?
5-6% dissolved in plasma
5-8% bind to hemoglobin at a different binding site than oxygen
86-90% converted to hydrogen ions and bicarbonate by enzyme called carbonic anhydrase. When co2 goes up hydrogen ions go up and ph decreases, and vice versa. Want ph of 7.4
Potassium channel
Allows K+ but not Na+ through even though Na+ is smaller
N the channel O atoms are located at a constriction where the K+ ion just fits and loses its H2O shell, while Na+ is too small for the O atoms to attract to the H2O
Extensive ER membrane system
Cells specialized for synthesizing proteins have these
Fungi
Yeast is a unicellular form
Ex: athlete’s foot
Fatty acid
Non polar hydrocarbon with a polar carboxyl group
Ampipathic- opposing chemical properties, when carboxyl group ionizes it forms COO- and H+ and is hydrophilic while the other end is hydrophobic
Cytotoxic T Cell
Release perform and granzymes
Induce apoptosis (Fas)
Attack cancer cells which stop mitosis regulation and keep dividing- they bond to these and release perforins that poke h ones in the membrane, eater can go in, releases granzymes in the hole or proteins that activate apoptosis
Inner cell mass
• The inner cell mass of the blastocyst splits into an epiblast and hypoblast with a fluid-filled cavity in
between (just like the reptilian and avian gastrula).
- The embryo forms from the epiblast.
- The epiblast also splits off a layer of cells that form the amnion. The amnion grows around the developing embryo.
- The hypoblast cells extend to form the chorion. Thechorion and other tissues produce the placenta.
- The epiblast produces the amnion. Allantoic tissues form the umbilical cord.
Cones
Less sensitive to light
Respond to high illumination, can see colors
Path of zygote
- Still in the oviduct, the zygote divides to become a blastocyst and continues down the oviduct.
- In the uterus, the blastocyst attaches to the wall lining called the endometrium.
Photo system 1
Light energy reduces NADP+ to NADPH
Reaction center has chlorophyll a molecules: P700 absorbs in the 700nm range
Glycolipids
Carbohydrate and lipid
Macrophages in alveoli
Ward against foreign bodies, get rid of debris
How does photosynthesis convert light energy to chemical energy?
Reaction center converts light energy to chemical energy
Excited chlorophyll a molecule (Chl*) is a reducing agent (electron donor)
A is an acceptor molecule (oxidizing agent)
Chl* + A –> Chl+ + A-
A is the first in a chain of electron carriers on the thylakoid membrane (electron transport) a series of redox reactions
Final electron acceptor is NADP+
NADP+ + e- –> NADPH + H+
Plasma membrane
Outer surface of every cell, more or less same structure in every cell
Phospholipid bilayer with proteins and other molecules imbedded
Oily fluid in which proteins and lipids are in constant motion
Myeloid progenitor cells
Blood/platelets or immune cells produced
Types of immune cells:
Granular cells- neutrophils, mast cells
agranular cells- monocytes, macrophages,
Polysaccharides
Polymers of monosaccharides
Starch, glycogen, cellulose
Chemoreceptors
Homeostatic mechanism: Chemoreceptors constantly measuring level of oxygen and co2, send signal through sensory nerve fibers
Need increased inspiration during exercise, or if holding breath (decrease oxygen availability and increase co2 availability)
• Peripheral
– Carotid bodies
– Aortic bodies
• Central- within nervous system, medulla oblongata
3 ways that enzymes work
Orient substrate molecules and bring together random substrates to bond
Stretch the bonds in substrate molecules making them unstable and more reactive
Temporarily add chemical groups to substrates to make them more reactive
The eyes
Composed of an optical portion
Focus the image on sensory cells- photoreceptors, that are sensitive to light, they have the ability to process electrical activity and release neurotransmitters
Transform the image to the brain through a series of action potentials- 70% of brain processing is visual info
Nonspecific immunity
Prevention
Attack- if it gets in the circulatory system
Where Does Fertilization Take Place?
- Fertilization in mammals occurs in the upper oviduct; cleavage occurs as the zygote travels down the oviduct.
- When the blastocyst arrives in the uterus, the trophoblast adheres to the uterine wall (the endometrium), which begins the process of implantation.
- Early implantation in the oviduct wall is prevented by the zona pellucida. Inadvertent implantationcauses a tubal pregnancy, which is very dangerous.
- In the uterus, the blastocyst hatches out of the zona pellucida, and implantation can occur.
- Stimulated by estrogen, the endometrium develops new blood vessels to cradle the blastocyst.
- The blastocyst burrows in (implantation), interacting with the wall to form the placenta.
Photophosphorylation
Light driven production of ATP
H+ transported via electron carriers across the thylakoid membrane from the stroma into the lumen, creating an electrochemical gradient
Extracellular destruction: complement
• Membrane Attack Complex (MAC)
– Embeds itself in the microbe membrane, forming pores
– Water and salt enter the microbe
Proteins released by liver to do the job: complement system
Phospholipids
Fatty acids bound to glycerol a phosphate group replaces one fatty acid
Phosphate group is hydrophilic “head”
“tails” are hydrophobic fatty acid chains
(ampipathic)
How does photosynthesis convert light energy to chemical energy?
Reaction center converts light energy to chemical energy
Excited chlorophyll a molecule (Chl*) is a reducing agent (electron donor)
A is an acceptor molecule (oxidizing agent)
Chl* + A –> Chl+ + A-
A is the first in a chain of electron carriers on the thylakoid membrane (electron transport) a series of redox reactions
Final electron acceptor is NADP+
NADP+ + e- –> NADPH + H+
G3P
Gylceraldehyde 3 phosphate
5/6 recycled into RuBP
1/6 converted to starch and sucrose to make glucose and fructose
Chlorophylls a and b
Ring structure with magnesium atom in center
Hydrocarbon tail which anchors them to integral proteins in the thylakoids membrane
Absorb in red and blue region
Accessory pigments
Transfer energy absorbed to chorophylls
Carotenoids and phycobilins
Absorb intermediate between red and blue
Active transport involves 3 kinds of proteins
Uniporters- one ion, one direction
Symporters- 2 ions, same direction
Antiporters- 2 ions, different directions
Spina bifida
failure of the neural tube to fuse in a posterior region dueto vitamin B deficiency
Roles of Golgi apparatus
Receive proteins from ER and modify them
Concentrate/package/sort proteins before they are sent to their destinations
Sme polysaccharides for plant cell walls are synthesized
Phagocytosis & Recruitment
- Macrophages in the nearby tissue detect bacteria using receptor proteins to engulf them
- Macrophages release cytokines- chemicals for recruitment
- Mast cells release histamine- causes vasodilation
- Injured cells release chemotaxins- chemo attractants to attract immune cells
Function of Cortisol
- Increases the fuel availability to the brain
- Gluconeogenesis- Synthesis of glucose, started to make glucose from amino acids which is bad because you’re breaking down your proteins which you need for muscles, enzymes, micro tubules, etc. but cortisol breaks it down to make glucose with causes negative effect
- Lypolytic hormone- Breaks down fats to make sure fatty acids are available for the brain. Can end up localizing fat
- Anti-inflammatory effects- Someone’s immune system, histamine is released as an alert for immune system but that starts to decrease with cortisol (immunosuppressive)
- Affects memory function- Permanent brain damage, kills neurons permanently
- proteolytic hormone- promotes protein breakdown, prevents growth, birth of premature babies
Stoma
Mouth of plant
Co2 enters and O2/water exit through these pores
Premature Contractions and Delivery
- A positive feedback loop develops (mechanical stimuli increase the release of oxytocin, and vice versa), and this converts Braxton-Hicks contractions into stronger labor contractions.
- In the early stage of labor, contractions gradually become more frequent and intense until they haveopened the cervix.
- In the delivery stage, the baby’s head moves into the vagina and becomes visible from the outside.
- The usual head-down position of the baby comes about during the seventh month of pregnancy.
Accessory pigments
Transfer energy absorbed to chorophylls
Carotenoids and phycobilins
Absorb intermediate between red and blue
Gametes
- The gonads (testes and ovaries) are the sites of gametogenesis.
- Male gametes (sperm) move by beating flagella; female gametes (eggs or ova) arenonmotile.
Bone marrow
Produces mulitpotent hematopoietic cell, which in return can be a myeloid or a lymphoid progenitor cel
Stem cells- have not differentiated yet, blood stem cells can become blood cells
Where are these microorganisms?
They like moisture, food particles, want to get in blood vessels (from there they can travel all over the body)
Chemoreceptors
Homeostatic mechanism: Chemoreceptors constantly measuring level of oxygen and co2, send signal through sensory nerve fibers
Need increased inspiration during exercise, or if holding breath (decrease oxygen availability and increase co2 availability)
• Peripheral
– Carotid bodies
– Aortic bodies
• Central- within nervous system, medulla oblongata
Cleavage
a rapid series of celldivision, but no cell growth
In mammals cleavage is rotational:
First cell division is parallel to the animal–vegetal axis; yields two blastomeres.
In second division two blastomeres divide at right angles to each other;one is parallel to the axis and the other is perpendicular to it. This pattern of division is unique to mammals with placentas.
Neutrophils
Most abundant phagocytic cells
Release:
Cytokines- alarming chemicals to alarm other immune cells
Vasodilators- increases size of blood cells, Make blood vessel bigger so immune cells can travel
Chemotaxins- chemo attractants, attract other immune cells, travel in blood vessels and squeeze out of them, can get anywhere in the body
Extracellular destruction: complement
• Membrane Attack Complex (MAC)
– Embeds itself in the microbe membrane, forming pores
– Water and salt enter the microbe
Proteins released by liver to do the job: complement system
During gastrulation, three germ layers form
– The inner germ layer is the endoderm and gives rise to the digestive tract, circulatory tract, and respiratory tract.
– The outer layer, the ectoderm, gives rise to the epidermis and nervous system.
– The middle layer, the mesoderm, contributes to bone, muscle, liver, heart, and blood vessels
Ruben and kamen
Used radioisotope tracers (O18 and O16) to determine that water was the source of O2 released during photosynthesis rather than CO2
Metabolic pathways
Thousands of chemical reactions occurring simultaneously organized he
Each reaction catalyzed by a specific enzyme, and if one enzyme is inactive all subsequent steps may be shut down
Pathways are interconnected
Regulation of enzymes and therefore reaction rates helps maintain homeostasis (activation and inactivation of enzymes)
Light independent reactions
“dark reactions”
Use ATP and NADH from light reactions plus CO2 to produce carbohydrates (because coenzymes ATP and NADH are not stored, need light for light reaction first)
Blood Vessels
- Form closed circuit tubes that carry blood from the heart to cells and back to the heart
- Arteries, arterioles (Tiny arteries, still can be seen by the naked eye) , capillaries, venules (merge to form veins), and veins
CO2 fixation
CO2 is reduced to carbohydrates
Enzymes in the stroma use the energy in ATP and NADPH to reduce CO2
Because the ATP and NADPH are not “stockpiled,” these light independent reactions must also take place in light
Digestive (main) organs
• Mouth
• Pharynx
• Esophagus (upper 1/3 skeletal muscles)
• Stomach
• Small intestine (final digestion/aborption)
– Duodenum, jejunum, ileum
• Large intestine (Minimal processes, but mostly waste)
– Cecum, colon, rectum
• Anus
Synaptic neurotransmitter release
Action potential arrives at axon terminals
Depolarization of the action potential stimulates the voltage gated calcium channels to open
Calcium influx causes the mobilization of vesicles containing neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitter release by exocytosis
Neurotransmitters bind to receptors (ligand voltage channel)on postsynaptic neuron, or get broken down by enzymes, or can be released back to the CNS, or reuptaken by the ore synaptic neuron
Depolarization occurs, series of events that lead to action potential in postsynaptic neuron
Phagocytosis & Recruitment
- Macrophages in the nearby tissue detect bacteria using receptor proteins to engulf them
- Macrophages release cytokines- chemicals for recruitment
- Mast cells release histamine- causes vasodilation
- Injured cells release chemotaxins- chemo attractants to attract immune cells
Photosystem
Multiple antenna systems, surround reaction centers
Pigments packed together on thylakoids membrane proteins
Excitation energy passes from the pigments that absorb short wavelengths to those that absorb longer wavelengths, and ends up in the reaction center pigment
Bone marrow
Produces mulitpotent hematopoietic cell, which in return can be a myeloid or a lymphoid progenitor cel
Stem cells- have not differentiated yet, blood stem cells can become blood cells
B lymphocytes
Transform into plasma cells and release antibodies into the circulation, which are proteins that tag the pathogens to signal the immune cells to destroy it
Form memory cells- every pathogen has specific surface receptors (signature), they can remember for next time how to fight the infection
Cytotoxic T Cell
Release perform and granzymes
Induce apoptosis (Fas)
Attack cancer cells which stop mitosis regulation and keep dividing- they bond to these and release perforins that poke h ones in the membrane, eater can go in, releases granzymes in the hole or proteins that activate apoptosis
Phagocytosis & Recruitment
- Macrophages in the nearby tissue detect bacteria using receptor proteins to engulf them
- Macrophages release cytokines- chemicals for recruitment
- Mast cells release histamine- causes vasodilation
- Injured cells release chemotaxins- chemo attractants to attract immune cells
How do gases cross the lung/bloodmedia?
Process of diffusion.
Alveoli made of single layered cells, blood capillaries only have tunica intima and some connective tissue, so very thin, and easy process of diffusion
Both the capillaries and the alveoli are lined with simple squamous epithelium
Erections
sexually aroused male’s autonomic nervous system causes penis blood vessel dilation. The nerve endings release nitric oxide, (NO, a gas) a neurotransmitter that stimulates the production of cGMP a second messenger that acts on the blood vessels
This swells the spongy, erectile tissue and compresses the blood flow from the penis
Microbes
Harmful substances, living or dead
third trimester
internal organs mature and organ systems begin to function
The last organs to mature before birthare the lungs
Processes in Calvin Benson cycle
Fixation of CO2 by combination with RuBP (catalyzes by rubisco)
Conversion of fixed CO2 into carbohydrate G3P (using ATP and NADPH)
Regeneration of CO2 acceptor RuBP by ATP
How is Carbon Dioxide Transported?
5-6% dissolved in plasma
5-8% bind to hemoglobin at a different binding site than oxygen
86-90% converted to hydrogen ions and bicarbonate by enzyme called carbonic anhydrase. When co2 goes up hydrogen ions go up and ph decreases, and vice versa. Want ph of 7.4
Cerebrospinal fluid path
Circulates from the lateral ventricles through interventicular foramen to the third ventricle
Then to the cerebral aqueduct and to the 4th ventricle (can go to the CNS from here)
Then central canal to the spinal cord
Radioisotopes after world war II
Became readily available to cell biologists to study cell metabolism
Ex: tritium(3H) emits beta particle when one extra neutron changes into a proton
Autoradiography- radioisotopes can trace the fate of molecules in cells
Pupils in bright light
Circular smooth muscles (inner) contract, pupil constricts
How Are Gases Transported?
• Once in the blood, oxygen is transported in two ways
– 1.5% is dissolved in the plasma and cytosol of erythrocytes
– 98.5 % Bound to hemoglobin
Clostridium botulinum
Wrinkles are overstimulation of motor neurons onto muscles
Botox decreases wrinkles by minimizing activity, interferes with muscle response from neurons by using a toxin to interact with the neurotransmitter vesicles preventing exocytosis, neurotransmitters are not able to be released
Monocytes/macrophages
Monocytes are inactive form, on patrol, macrophages are active, they attack
Engulf and digest
Activate T cells
Once monocytes enter tissue they become macrophages
Steps of fertilization
– The sperm and egg recognize each other.
– The sperm is activated so that it can gain access to the plasma membrane of the egg.
– The plasma membranes of the sperm and egg fuse.
– The egg blocks entry of additional sperm.
– The egg is stimulated to start development.
– The egg and sperm nuclei fuse
Antenna systems
Pigments arranged in these
Also called light harvesting complexes
Path of sperm
- To achieve fertilization, sperm swim up the vagina, assisted by contractions of the female reproductive tract.
- The sperm then pass through the cervix and most of the oviduct to the egg (secondary oocyte) in the upper oviduct.
- Egg and sperm nucleus (both haploid) fuse to produce the diploid zygote.
Activation energy
Amount of energy required to start the reaction
Biological reactions are slow because of this energy barrier
Can come from heating the system because it has more kinetic energy
Synthesis of steroids
Smooth ER synthesizes lipids, mitochondria synthesize steroid hormones
Released into circulation (blood vessels) moving freely through the membrane by diffusion
Mechanoreceptors
Responds to mechanical pressure or distortion
Gastric Mucosa
• Mucosa cells
– Release mucus, watery solution with salt ions, basic chemicals to neutralize acid and make it less harmful to stomach
• Chief cells
– Release pepsinogen, enzyme that can break down proteins but it’s not activated, needs highly acidic environment
• Parietal cells
– Release HCl, and Intrinsic factor (absorption of vitamins, B12)
Ruben and kamen
Used radioisotope tracers (O18 and O16) to determine that water was the source of O2 released during photosynthesis rather than CO2
Photosynthesis
“synthesis from light”
Plants take in CO2, produce carbohydrates, and release O2 and water
Light is required
6CO2 + 12H2O–> C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O
Sharp object penetrating skin
Easiest way to get infected by a pathogen
Some cells are already in the vicinity, they destroy and then call for back up
Monocytes/macrophages
Monocytes are inactive form, on patrol, macrophages are active, they attack
Engulf and digest
Activate T cells
Once monocytes enter tissue they become macrophages
Synaptic transmission
Acetylcholinerase destroys acetyl choline molecules so nerve stimulation does not get put of control. Inhibitor
Steps of fertilization
– The sperm and egg recognize each other.
– The sperm is activated so that it can gain access to the plasma membrane of the egg.
– The plasma membranes of the sperm and egg fuse.
– The egg blocks entry of additional sperm.
– The egg is stimulated to start development.
– The egg and sperm nuclei fuse
Rough ER
Has ribosomes attached
Chemoreceptors
Homeostatic mechanism: Chemoreceptors constantly measuring level of oxygen and co2, send signal through sensory nerve fibers
Need increased inspiration during exercise, or if holding breath (decrease oxygen availability and increase co2 availability)
• Peripheral
– Carotid bodies
– Aortic bodies
• Central- within nervous system, medulla oblongata
Organ of corti
In center of cochlea, consists of tectorial membrane, basilar membrane, hair cells, and connected to axons leading to the auditory nerve
The basilar membrane is more flexible than the tectorial membrane, bends upward when perilymph vibrates and then the hair cells are squeezed agains the tectorial membrane generating electrical activity, sending a signal to the brain
Childbirth
- Passage of the baby is assisted by the mother’s bearing down with her abdominal muscles.
- Once the baby is clear of the birth canal it canstart breathing and become independent of the mother’s circulation, so the umbilical cord is clamped and cut.
- Finally, the placenta and fetal membranes are detached from the mother and expelled (several minutes–1 hour)
Amino acids
Have carbonyl and amino groups with a hydrogen and an R group
function as an acid and base
R group make differences in amino acids
How do we study organelles?
First studied using light microscopy
Cell fractionation separates organelles for study by chemical methods (spin tubes of cells with rotor)
Types of glial cells
Schwann-PNS
Microglia- protect from harmful chemicals that attack the brain
Oligodendrocytes-CNS
Astrocytes- most abundant type support neurons and join capillaries to neurons
Ependamyl- produce csf
Golgi apparatus
Has flattened membrane sacs and small membrane enclosed vesicles
Ectotherm (poikilotherm)
Depend on external heat sources to maintain body temperature (On a hot day they are going to be hot and on a cold day thy are going to be cold)
Limit of resolution
.61 x wavelength / NA
NA= refractive index x sine of angle of most oblique ray
Calvin and benson
Used 14C radioisotope to determine the sequence of reactions in CO2 fixation
Exposed chlorella to 14CO2 then extracted the organic compounds and separated them by paper chromatography
3 second exposure of chlorella to 14CO2 revealed that the first compound to be formed is 3PG, a 3 carbon sugar phosphate
Compliance
Ability to change volume and pressure
Balloon is like the lungs- highly compliant
Paper bag- not compliant
How does photosynthesis convert light energy to chemical energy?
Reaction center converts light energy to chemical energy
Excited chlorophyll a molecule (Chl*) is a reducing agent (electron donor)
A is an acceptor molecule (oxidizing agent)
Chl* + A –> Chl+ + A-
A is the first in a chain of electron carriers on the thylakoid membrane (electron transport) a series of redox reactions
Final electron acceptor is NADP+
NADP+ + e- –> NADPH + H+
Control of breathing
Voluntary until it becomes physiologically dangerous, your brain will force you to breathe.
• Inspiration is initiated by stimulating the respiratory muscles
– Diaphragm and external intercostals
• The stimulation is initiated in the medullary centers and the pons
Medulla oblongata sends signal to spinal cord, phrenic nerve sends action potential to diaphragm. 100% controlled by brain unless you voluntarily change it, stimulation always occurring. Neurons called central patter generator, send action potentials then they stop, perfectly synced on/off mechanism
Photophosphorylation
Light driven production of ATP
H+ transported via electron carriers across the thylakoid membrane from the stroma into the lumen, creating an electrochemical gradient
Superior vena cava
Brings deoxygenated blood from all structures above diaphragm
Saccharides
Simple sugars, monomers of carbohydrates
Di- 2
Oligo- 3-20
Poly- hundreds of thousands
Potassium channel
Allows K+ but not Na+ through even though Na+ is smaller
N the channel O atoms are located at a constriction where the K+ ion just fits and loses its H2O shell, while Na+ is too small for the O atoms to attract to the H2O
Brain/heart relation?
Heart does not need brain to function, brain can regulate heart activities but does not initiate activity- has special cells called pacemaker cells scattered all over the heart
Light independent reactions
“dark reactions”
Use ATP and NADH from light reactions plus CO2 to produce carbohydrates (because coenzymes ATP and NADH are not stored, need light for light reaction first)
Microcirculation
Traveling of arterioles to capillaries to venules
Cells are taking the oxygen and glucose and dumping co2 by process of diffusion
Synthesis of peptides
Hormones are synthesized in the ribosomes and RER as preprohormones- an inactive form that is stored inside the cell
that get converted to prohormone by modification
Packaged in Golgi as prohormone
Large peptide released from cell by exocytosis because lipid insoluble
When released into the blood still inactive, become active in circulation
Ingredients for photosynthesis
Co2 reduced to sugars that travel throughout the plant body
Water up taken by roots
Water and oxygen released
Steps of fertilization
– The sperm and egg recognize each other.
– The sperm is activated so that it can gain access to the plasma membrane of the egg.
– The plasma membranes of the sperm and egg fuse.
– The egg blocks entry of additional sperm.
– The egg is stimulated to start development.
– The egg and sperm nuclei fuse
When a photon meets a molecule it can be-
Scattered- photon bounces off the molecule
Transmitted- photon passed through the molecule
Absorbed- molecule squires the energy of the photon. Goes from ground state to excited state, and disappears and energy is absorbed
Prokaryotes
No nucleus or other membrane enclosed compartments
Lack distinct organelles
Non cyclic electron transport
Light energy is used to oxidize water, produces O2, H+, and electrons
After excitation by light, Chl+ is an unstable molecule and seeks electrons
Chl+ is a stron oxidizing agent and takes electrons from water, splitting the water molecule
Premature Contractions and Delivery
- A positive feedback loop develops (mechanical stimuli increase the release of oxytocin, and vice versa), and this converts Braxton-Hicks contractions into stronger labor contractions.
- In the early stage of labor, contractions gradually become more frequent and intense until they haveopened the cervix.
- In the delivery stage, the baby’s head moves into the vagina and becomes visible from the outside.
- The usual head-down position of the baby comes about during the seventh month of pregnancy.
CRH
Corticotropin releasing hormone
Stimulate release of ACTH
Amniocentesis
extraction of amnioticfluid with a needle, after the fourteenth week of pregnancy
Plastids
Organelles found only in plants and some protists
Endocytosis
Processes that bring molecules and cells into a eukaryotic cell
Plasma membrane folds in (invaginates) around the material, forming a vesicle
Sertoli cells
• The germ cells are protected from noxioussubstances in the blood by Sertoli cells, which also provide nutrients for the developing sperm and are involved in the hormonal control of spermatogenesis.
Chemical barriers
Sebum- oily acidic substance released from sebaceous glands
Lacrimal glands- tears protect sclera and cornea, dripping through nasal cavity, washing of the eye
Lysozymes- degrading/digestive enzymes secreted from the mucous membranes
Defensins- peptides secreted from the mucous membranes
Ear wax- things get stuck
Sweat- cools body and at same time destroys microorganisms on skin, B.O. Is the degradation of bacteria on skin
Macrophages- immune cells
Stomach acid- HCl, damaging
Saliva
What Affects Hb-OxygenBinding?
Demands for oxygen changing depending on your state. (if sitting, cells in legs not picking up that much oxygen) so ATP production chants, and more ATP produced the more oxygen you get delivered. Waste products signify how much ATP you are making so your red blood cells know.
- BPG (2,3 Bisphosphoglyceric acid)- BPG by product of glycolysis- when increases, unload more oxygen.
- Temperature
- Acidity- lactic acid is byproduct of fermentation
Lymphoid progenitor cells
Form into B lymphocytes, T lymphocytes
Steps in neurulation
- The ectoderm over the notochord thickens and forms the neural plate.
- Edges of the neural plate fold and a deep groove forms.
- The folds fuse, forming the neural tube and a layer of ectoderm, The anterior end of the neural tube becomes the brain, the rest becomes the spinal cord
Mast cells
- Mast cells are found throughout connective tissues (not found in blood)
- They release histamine and other chemicals involved in inflammation
Cell theory
Cells are the fundamental units of life
All organisms are composed of cells
All cells come from preexisting cells
Components of the cytoskeleton
Microfilaments
Intermediate filaments
Microtubules
G3P
Gylceraldehyde 3 phosphate
5/6 recycled into RuBP
1/6 converted to starch and sucrose to make glucose and fructose
Penis
The penis is a tubular shaft, the tip of which has sensitive skin called the glans penis that is very responsive to sexual stimulation
Path of the egg
the mature egg is released into the body cavity and is swept into the end of the oviduct (Fallopian tube) by an undulating fringe of tissue (Fertilization takes place in the oviduct and, in humans, the second meiotic division takes place)
Cilia lining the oviduct propel the fertilized or unfertilized egg toward the uterus, a muscular, thick-walled cavity
The opening at the bottom of the uterus is the cervix,which leads into the vagina
Bacteria
Unicellular prokaryotes
Plastids
Organelles found only in plants and some protists
Oligosaccharides
May include other functional groups
Covalently bonded to proteins and lipids on cell surfaces and act as recognition signals
Human blood groups get specificity from oligosaccharide chains
Chorionic villus sampling
tissue isremoved from the chorion after the eighth week
Carbohydrates Digestion
Dietary carbohydrates: starch, glycogen (usually found in meats, but already broken down), sucrose (fruit), lactose (milk)
Salivary glands: salivary amylase breaks down carbs into smaller polysaccharides
Pancreas: pancreatic amylase breaks down to disaccharides such as maltose, sucrose, and galactose
Small intestine: disaccharidases breaks down to monosaccharides such as fructose, galactose, glucose
The three fundamental steps of sexual reproduction are:
– Gametogenesis (producing sperm and eggs, requires meiosis)
– Mating (getting sperm and egg together)
– Fertilization (fusion of sperm and egg)
- Gametogenesis and fertilization are fairly similar in different groups of animals.
- Mating behaviors, however, show incredible diversity.
Fibrous layers
Used for protection and muscle attachment (fine muscles can move eyes)
Cornea- thick transparent membrane, covers colored part of eye, convex shape, first thing to perceive light rays, helps image not appear distorted
Sclera- posterior, white part of eye, main muscle attachment where you can move your eye without having to move your entire head
emission
contractions of smooth muscles in the vasa deferentia and accessory glands move semen into the urethra
When a photon meets a molecule it can be-
Scattered- photon bounces off the molecule
Transmitted- photon passed through the molecule
Absorbed- molecule squires the energy of the photon. Goes from ground state to excited state, and disappears and energy is absorbed
Calvin and benson
Used 14C radioisotope to determine the sequence of reactions in CO2 fixation
Exposed chlorella to 14CO2 then extracted the organic compounds and separated them by paper chromatography
3 second exposure of chlorella to 14CO2 revealed that the first compound to be formed is 3PG, a 3 carbon sugar phosphate
B lymphocytes
Transform into plasma cells and release antibodies into the circulation, which are proteins that tag the pathogens to signal the immune cells to destroy it
Form memory cells- every pathogen has specific surface receptors (signature), they can remember for next time how to fight the infection
Macrophages in alveoli
Ward against foreign bodies, get rid of debris
Entry of Sperm into the Egg
- In animals with internal fertilization, egg–sperm recognition mechanisms also exist.
- In the female reproductive tract, mammalian sperm are metabolically activated and attracted to the egg in the oviduct, but also aided in their movement by muscular contractions.
- The mammalian egg is surrounded by a thick layer called the cumulus. Beneath that is a protein envelope called the zona pellucida.
- A species-specific glycoprotein in the zona pellucida binds to the head of the sperm.
- The acrosomal reaction is triggered, releasing acrosomal enzymes that digest a path through the zona pellucida
ejaculation
(orgasm), contractions of the muscles at the base of the penis force semen throughthe urethra and out of the penis
After ejaculation, the autonomic nervous system causes constriction of the vessels in the penis and thus a decrease in blood pressure in the erectile tissue; the compression of blood vessels leaving the penis is relieved and the erection declines
B lymphocytes
Transform into plasma cells and release antibodies into the circulation, which are proteins that tag the pathogens to signal the immune cells to destroy it
Form memory cells- every pathogen has specific surface receptors (signature), they can remember for next time how to fight the infection
Stoma
Mouth of plant
Co2 enters and O2/water exit through these pores
B lymphocytes
Transform into plasma cells and release antibodies into the circulation, which are proteins that tag the pathogens to signal the immune cells to destroy it
Form memory cells- every pathogen has specific surface receptors (signature), they can remember for next time how to fight the infection
Ruben and kamen
Used radioisotope tracers (O18 and O16) to determine that water was the source of O2 released during photosynthesis rather than CO2
Gastrulation
Gastrulation is the process in which a blastulais transformed into an embryo with three
tissue layers and body axes
Peroxisomes
Also called microbodies
Small organelles specialized to compartmentalize toxic peroxides and break them down
Break down of hydrogen peroxide through catalase
Lymphoid tissues
Adenoids, tonsils, thymus, lymph noes, spleen, bone marrow, lymphatic vessels
Immune cells originate here, majorly from bone marrow
immune cells are scattered all over, but they are clustered in certain areas in case of infection
Heart as a muscle
Needs to contract and relax
When heart contracts, blood comes out, relaxing is when heart is filling up with blood (output and input)
Bone marrow
Produces mulitpotent hematopoietic cell, which in return can be a myeloid or a lymphoid progenitor cel
Stem cells- have not differentiated yet, blood stem cells can become blood cells
Nucleoplasm
Surrounds the chromatin
Photosystem
Multiple antenna systems, surround reaction centers
Pigments packed together on thylakoids membrane proteins
Excitation energy passes from the pigments that absorb short wavelengths to those that absorb longer wavelengths, and ends up in the reaction center pigment
Wernicke’s aphasia
Speech understanding affected but not instructions, say nonsensical things
Mechanisms of peptide action
Peptide- hydrophillic, so receptor in membrane because it cannot permeate inside the cell
When receptor bound to hormone become activated, associates with/activates membrane communication protein called g protein made of multiple subunits
alpha subunit moves along membrane and activates adenylyl cyclase and coverts a molecule in into cyclic AMP
triggers a cascade of activation in proteins (protein kinase A activated, particular protein phosphorylates and changes shape protein shape and function altered, brings about cellular reponse)
A lot quicker but local changes
Ventricular systole
Physical contraction of muscle
Ventricles are squeezing out blood and decreasing in size.
Pulmonary and aortic valves are open
unidirectional blood flow, don’t want blood to return to the atrium so bicuspid and tricuspid valves are closed
Z scheme
Model of noncyclic electron transport
Extracts electrons from water and transfers them to NADPH, using energy from photosynthesis one and two and resulting in ATP synthesis
Yields ATP, NADPH, and O2
When a pigment molecule absorbs a photon (excited state) the energy can be-
Released as heat and/or light
Transferred to another molecule
Used for a chemical reaction
Inspiration
Diaphragm- Lungs physically sit on diaphragm, main muscle for respiration, pushes down during inspiration
External intercostal muscles- contact and push down
Vitamins
Small molecules not synthesized by the body, must be acquired in the diet
Carbohydrates
Have carbon and water
Source and transport of stored energy
Carbon skeletons for many other molecules
Viagra
first introduced for heart problems, sexual excitation, want blood to flow to the penis faster than it flows out, need dilation of blood vessels which requires neurotransmitter nitrous oxide, produces a dilation of the blood vessels. If excessive production of phosphodiesterase, it breaks down nitrous oxide. But Viagra inhibits phosphodiesterase, that can cause problems with vision and the breakdown of cyclic gmp
First trimester
embryo becomes a fetus
Heart begins to beat by week 4
Limbs form by week 8
The first trimester is the period during which the fetus is most susceptible to damage from radiation, drugs, chemicals, and agents that cause birth defects.
The hormone hCG (human chorionic gonadotropin) is released after implantation and is an early indicator of pregnancy
Macromolecules
Giant polymers, molecular weight usually greater than 1000 daltons
All form through condensation reactions where water is removed during bond formation
What happens during muscle contraction?
Sarcomere contracts and shortens in length, forced production is due to interaction between myosin and actin
Calvin and benson
Used 14C radioisotope to determine the sequence of reactions in CO2 fixation
Exposed chlorella to 14CO2 then extracted the organic compounds and separated them by paper chromatography
3 second exposure of chlorella to 14CO2 revealed that the first compound to be formed is 3PG, a 3 carbon sugar phosphate
Erythrocytes
- Transport gases in the body
- Biconcave discs
- Flat size to increase diffusion- huge surface area
- Produced in the bone marrow
- Regulated by erythropoitin
- no organelles, like a cargo van for nutrients
- Short life span- 120 days
- Packed with hemoglobin (type of protein bound to iron), each has 250 million hemoglobin with 4 oxygen molecules
- Its formation depends on folic acid and B12
Cellulose
Very stable, good for structural components
Linear
During gastrulation, three germ layers form
– The inner germ layer is the endoderm and gives rise to the digestive tract, circulatory tract, and respiratory tract.
– The outer layer, the ectoderm, gives rise to the epidermis and nervous system.
– The middle layer, the mesoderm, contributes to bone, muscle, liver, heart, and blood vessels
Inner cell mass
• The inner cell mass of the blastocyst splits into an epiblast and hypoblast with a fluid-filled cavity in
between (just like the reptilian and avian gastrula).
- The embryo forms from the epiblast.
- The epiblast also splits off a layer of cells that form the amnion. The amnion grows around the developing embryo.
- The hypoblast cells extend to form the chorion. Thechorion and other tissues produce the placenta.
- The epiblast produces the amnion. Allantoic tissues form the umbilical cord.
Glycosidic linkages
Monosaccharides bind together in these condensation reactions
Can be alpha or beta
Texture of phospholipid bilayer
Flexible, the interior is fluid and allows lateral movement of molecules
Fluidity depends on temperature and composition
Region with cholesterol is stiffened
Autoimmune disease
Immune system turned against you, attacks a particular tissue
- diabetes type 1: attacks beta cells that produce insulin
- multiple sclerosis: attacks myelin, slows electrical activities
- rheumatoid arthritis: attacks joints
Resolution
Limiting factor in all microscopes, need high resolution to see detail
Two systems of electron transport
Non cyclic electron transport- produces NADPH and ATP
Cyclic electron transport- produces ATP only
- when you need more sugar you need more ATP than NADH, so cyclic transport is needed
Inhibitors
Molecule that binds to the enzyme and slows reaction rates
Regulates enzymes
Naturally occurring inhibitors regulate metabolism
Carbohydrates Digestion
Dietary carbohydrates: starch, glycogen (usually found in meats, but already broken down), sucrose (fruit), lactose (milk)
Salivary glands: salivary amylase breaks down carbs into smaller polysaccharides
Pancreas: pancreatic amylase breaks down to disaccharides such as maltose, sucrose, and galactose
Small intestine: disaccharidases breaks down to monosaccharides such as fructose, galactose, glucose
Path of zygote
- Still in the oviduct, the zygote divides to become a blastocyst and continues down the oviduct.
- In the uterus, the blastocyst attaches to the wall lining called the endometrium.
Processes of the Digestive
- Motility- mixing of food
- Secretion- enzymes being released, produced in digestive system cells, ingredient sometimes produced in blood.
- Digestion- chemical breakdown of covalent bonds
- Absorption- Broken down into individual units, can be absorbed, accessible to cells
Control of breathing
Voluntary until it becomes physiologically dangerous, your brain will force you to breathe.
• Inspiration is initiated by stimulating the respiratory muscles
– Diaphragm and external intercostals
• The stimulation is initiated in the medullary centers and the pons
Medulla oblongata sends signal to spinal cord, phrenic nerve sends action potential to diaphragm. 100% controlled by brain unless you voluntarily change it, stimulation always occurring. Neurons called central patter generator, send action potentials then they stop, perfectly synced on/off mechanism
Receptor mediated endocytosis in mammalian cells
Take in cholesterol
I liver, cholesterol packaged into low density lipoprotein (LDL) and secreted into the bloodstream
Cells that need cholesterol have receptors for the LDLs in clathrin coated pits
Artery
Strong elastic vessels that carry blood away from the heart
Branch into smaller arterioles
Elastic- when heart ejects blood they have to accommodate a large amount of blood, very high pressure, contraction of heart, arteries accommodating this force
Uniform shape
Transition state species
Activation energy changes the reactants into unstable forms with higher free energy
Calvin and benson
Used 14C radioisotope to determine the sequence of reactions in CO2 fixation
Exposed chlorella to 14CO2 then extracted the organic compounds and separated them by paper chromatography
3 second exposure of chlorella to 14CO2 revealed that the first compound to be formed is 3PG, a 3 carbon sugar phosphate
Stroma
Fluid in which grana are suspended in chloroplasts
Where are these microorganisms?
They like moisture, food particles, want to get in blood vessels (from there they can travel all over the body)
System of respiration
Constant exchange of air: ventilation (tidal volume)
Diffusion- oxygen from lungs to blood
Circulation- bulk transport
Diffusion of oxygen into cells
Cellular respiration
How do gases cross the lung/bloodmedia?
Process of diffusion.
Alveoli made of single layered cells, blood capillaries only have tunica intima and some connective tissue, so very thin, and easy process of diffusion
Both the capillaries and the alveoli are lined with simple squamous epithelium
Monosaccharide absorption
- Glucose and galactose are absorbed by secondary active transport, takes glucose independent of concentration from the lumen to the inside of the epithelial cells
- They leave the cells into the plasma (blood vessels)via carrier proteins passively by facilitated diffusion, majority stored in liver and muscles
Roles of the plasma membrane
Selectively permeable barrier
Interface for cells where info is received from adjacent cells and extracellular signals
Allows cells to maintain a constant internal environment
Molecules responsible for binding to adjacent cells
Skeletal muscles
Each muscle in the body classified as an organ
A muscle is made of many fascicles
Fascicles are made of bundles of muscle fibers
Muscles fibers (individual cell, contracts and produces force) made of myofibrils
Myofibrils are contractile proteins, arranged in sections called sarcomere
ACTH
Adrenocorticotropic hormone
Helps body cope with stress
Target organ: adrenal cortex
Chlorophylls a and b
Ring structure with magnesium atom in center
Hydrocarbon tail which anchors them to integral proteins in the thylakoids membrane
Absorb in red and blue region
Fungi
Yeast is a unicellular form
Ex: athlete’s foot
Accessory pigments
Transfer energy absorbed to chorophylls
Carotenoids and phycobilins
Absorb intermediate between red and blue
Microtubules
Hollow cylinders made from tubulin protein subunits
Provid rigid intracellular skeleton for some cells, function as tracks for motor proteins
Form and disassemble as the needs of the cell change
Form cilia and flagella
Ribosomes
Sites of protein synthesis
found free in cytoplasm, in mitochondria, bound to the endoplasmic reticulum, and in chloroplasts
Consist of ribosomal RNA and more than 50 other proteins
TRH
Thyrotropin releasing hormone
Stimulates release of TSH
Valves of the Heart
• Tricuspid valve
– Between the right atrium and the right ventricle
• Bicuspid valve
– Between the left atrium and the left ventricle
• Pulmonary valve
– Between the right ventricle and the pulmonary trunk
• Aortic valve
– Between the left ventricle and the aorta
Electrical Activity of the Heart
- The heart is a cardiac muscle tissue that is constantly contracting (heart beat)
- Q: how does the heart contract?
- A: specialized cells called pacemaker cells that generate their own electrical activities
ovarian cycle
- The ovarian cycle repeats about every 28 days.
- A woman’s fertile years total about 450 ovarian cycles. In each cycle in most cases, one oocyte matures and is released.
- The end of fertility (menopause) occurs at about age 50, and only a few oocytes are left in each ovary.
Active transport
Moves substances against a concentration or electrical gradient, it requires energy (often ATP)
Alveolar type II cells
Secrete surfactant which keeps the alveoli from collapsing
Different contributions to the zygote:
- Sperm: DNA and a centriole, in somespecies.
* Egg: DNA, organelles, nutrients, transcription factors, mRNAs.
Processes in Calvin Benson cycle
Fixation of CO2 by combination with RuBP (catalyzes by rubisco)
Conversion of fixed CO2 into carbohydrate G3P (using ATP and NADPH)
Regeneration of CO2 acceptor RuBP by ATP
Thickness of endometrium
About 5 days after ovulation it is at its maximal thickness and ready to accept
Highly proliferated and vasularized
Hemoglobin
Hemoglobin is a metal (iron) that is positively charged, and oxygen negatively charged, so they bind
Ion channels
Specific channel proteins with hydrophilic pores
Non cyclic electron transport
Light energy is used to oxidize water, produces O2, H+, and electrons
After excitation by light, Chl+ is an unstable molecule and seeks electrons
Chl+ is a stron oxidizing agent and takes electrons from water, splitting the water molecule
Turnover number
Number of substrate molecules converted to product over time
Ranges from 1- 40 million per second
Autoimmune disease
Immune system turned against you, attacks a particular tissue
- diabetes type 1: attacks beta cells that produce insulin
- multiple sclerosis: attacks myelin, slows electrical activities
- rheumatoid arthritis: attacks joints
seminal vesicles
produce about two-thirds of the volume of semen, consisting of mucus, fibrinogen (clotting agent), and fructose as an energy source for the sperm
Climax of copulation
semen is propelled through the vasa deferentia and urethra in two steps
Light
A form of electromagnetic radiation
Propagated as waves, energy of light is inversely proportional to wavelength (must be appropriate wavelength to be absorbed by receptive molecules
Light also behaves as particles called photons, plants absorb these
Light reactions
Convert light energy to chemical energy as ATP and NADH
Calvin cycle stimulated by light
Protons pumped form stroma into thylakoids, increasing the pH which favors the activation of rubisco
Electron flow from photosystem one reduces disulfide bonds to activate calvin cycle enzymes
Roles of Golgi apparatus
Receive proteins from ER and modify them
Concentrate/package/sort proteins before they are sent to their destinations
Sme polysaccharides for plant cell walls are synthesized
Chemical barriers
Sebum- oily acidic substance released from sebaceous glands
Lacrimal glands- tears protect sclera and cornea, dripping through nasal cavity, washing of the eye
Lysozymes- degrading/digestive enzymes secreted from the mucous membranes
Defensins- peptides secreted from the mucous membranes
Ear wax- things get stuck
Sweat- cools body and at same time destroys microorganisms on skin, B.O. Is the degradation of bacteria on skin
Macrophages- immune cells
Stomach acid- HCl, damaging
Saliva
Transmural pressure
The pressure difference between two membranes
Multipolar neurons
Many dendrites, and one axon
99% of all neurons
Motor neurons and interneurons
Found in brain and spinal cord
Nuclear envelope
Formed by two lipid bilayers
Chemical barriers
Sebum- oily acidic substance released from sebaceous glands
Lacrimal glands- tears protect sclera and cornea, dripping through nasal cavity, washing of the eye
Lysozymes- degrading/digestive enzymes secreted from the mucous membranes
Defensins- peptides secreted from the mucous membranes
Ear wax- things get stuck
Sweat- cools body and at same time destroys microorganisms on skin, B.O. Is the degradation of bacteria on skin
Macrophages- immune cells
Stomach acid- HCl, damaging
Saliva
Virus
Cause major problems by taking over/infecting cells
Somites
separate, segmented blocks of cells on either side of the neural tube.
Muscle, cartilage, bone, and lower layer of the skin form from somites.
Neural crest cells are guided by somites to develop into peripheral nerves and other structures
Light reactions
Convert light energy to chemical energy as ATP and NADH
Hair cells depolarized
Movement of stereocilia towards kinocilium activates stretch activated channels
When they are stimulate, K+ influx occurs
Depolarization leads to activation of voltage gated Ca channels
Ca2+ influx causes release of neurotransmitters
SS
Somatostatin
Inhibits release of GH
Path of zygote
- Still in the oviduct, the zygote divides to become a blastocyst and continues down the oviduct.
- In the uterus, the blastocyst attaches to the wall lining called the endometrium.
When a pigment molecule absorbs a photon (excited state) the energy can be-
Released as heat and/or light
Transferred to another molecule
Used for a chemical reaction
Spina bifida
failure of the neural tube to fuse in a posterior region dueto vitamin B deficiency
Prokaryotes
No nucleus or other membrane enclosed compartments
Lack distinct organelles
Phagocytic cell migration
- The cytokines released by macrophages signal the endothelial cells to express selectin
- Margination occurs- dock and fuse with membrane, carbohydrate ligands on macrophages bind to selectin in blood vessel, move in blood vessel by rolling
- Phagocytic cells produce integrin on their membrane
- Stronger attachment occurs- immune cells are allowed to slow down and exit
- Phagocytic cells begin to move from the blood to the infected area in a process known as diapedisis
- Once in the interstitial fluid, phagocytic cells are attracted to the site of injury by chemotaxins- tell phagocytic cells exactly where to go
Fluorescence
When a pigment returns to ground state some of the energy may be given off as heat and some as fluorescence
Fluorescence has longer wavelengths and less energy than the absorbed light energy
No chemical work done
If pigment can pass the energy to another molecule, there’s no fluorescence, the energy can be passed to a reaction center where it is converted to chemical energy
Saturation of animal fats and plant oils
Animal fats: saturated
Plant oils: unsaturated
Myeloid progenitor cells
Blood/platelets or immune cells produced
Types of immune cells:
Granular cells- neutrophils, mast cells
agranular cells- monocytes, macrophages,
Ingredients for photosynthesis
Co2 reduced to sugars that travel throughout the plant body
Water up taken by roots
Water and oxygen released
Blastocyst
When blastula reaches 16 to 32 cells, it divides into two groups:
- Inner cell mass: becomes the embryo
- Trophoblast: a sac that forms from the outer cells. Its cells secrete fluid and create the blastocoel, with the inner cell mass at one end. Embryo is now called a blastocyst.
Extracellular destruction: complement
• Membrane Attack Complex (MAC)
– Embeds itself in the microbe membrane, forming pores
– Water and salt enter the microbe
Proteins released by liver to do the job: complement system
Parasite
Any organism that invades and lives by the expense of another body
Most are animals, either micro or macroscopic
Infects muscles and digestive system takes blood (muscles) and nutrients (liver)
What Affects Hb-OxygenBinding?
Demands for oxygen changing depending on your state. (if sitting, cells in legs not picking up that much oxygen) so ATP production chants, and more ATP produced the more oxygen you get delivered. Waste products signify how much ATP you are making so your red blood cells know.
- BPG (2,3 Bisphosphoglyceric acid)- BPG by product of glycolysis- when increases, unload more oxygen.
- Temperature
- Acidity- lactic acid is byproduct of fermentation
Parasite
Any organism that invades and lives by the expense of another body
Most are animals, either micro or macroscopic
Infects muscles and digestive system takes blood (muscles) and nutrients (liver)
Phagocytic cell migration
- The cytokines released by macrophages signal the endothelial cells to express selectin
- Margination occurs- dock and fuse with membrane, carbohydrate ligands on macrophages bind to selectin in blood vessel, move in blood vessel by rolling
- Phagocytic cells produce integrin on their membrane
- Stronger attachment occurs- immune cells are allowed to slow down and exit
- Phagocytic cells begin to move from the blood to the infected area in a process known as diapedisis
- Once in the interstitial fluid, phagocytic cells are attracted to the site of injury by chemotaxins- tell phagocytic cells exactly where to go
Sperm anatomy
Acrosome- tip
Nucleus
Midpiece- contains mitochondria, Mitochondrial DNA from mother. When sperm goes into egg loses mitochondria
Tail- flagellum made of microtubules
Light
A form of electromagnetic radiation
Propagated as waves, energy of light is inversely proportional to wavelength (must be appropriate wavelength to be absorbed by receptive molecules
Light also behaves as particles called photons, plants absorb these
Virus
Cause major problems by taking over/infecting cells
Microbes
Harmful substances, living or dead
Base
Releases hydroxide ions, accept H+, ph greater than 7
Brush Border Enzymes
Not released into cavity of small intestine, found on surface of microvilli
• Enterokinase
– Activates trypsinogen, (proteolitic enzyme coming from the pancreas) then trypsin activates everything else
• Disaccharidases
– breaks down disaccharides- Maltase, sucrase, lactase
• Aminopeptidases
– Hydrolyzes peptide fragments (dipeptides or very small peptides) to aminoacids
Passive transport
No outside energy required (diffusion)
Kinesin
Motor protein, moves toward plus end
Neural layer
Retina- neurons and synapses
Photophosphorylation
Light driven production of ATP
H+ transported via electron carriers across the thylakoid membrane from the stroma into the lumen, creating an electrochemical gradient
Mitochondria
Converts potential energy of fuel molecules into form that cell can use (ATP)
Outer lipid bilayer and highly folded inner membrane
Organization of the NS
Two major parts: the brain and the spinal cord
Brain receives somatic information and visceral information
Brain sends efferent commands that could be somatic or autonomic
Male genitalia
Penis and scrotum
Mast cells
- Mast cells are found throughout connective tissues (not found in blood)
- They release histamine and other chemicals involved in inflammation
Immunization
Series of shots
MMR- immunization shot against meals, mumps, rubella
Small quantity of pathogens to build immune response, memory cells to speed up recovery next time
third trimester
internal organs mature and organ systems begin to function
The last organs to mature before birthare the lungs
Pinna
Outer ear, like a funnel, it directs the vibrations of sound
Where are these microorganisms?
They like moisture, food particles, want to get in blood vessels (from there they can travel all over the body)
AIDS
Acquired immune deficiency syndrome, viruses attack immune cells, vulnerable system open to opportunistic infection
Extracellular destruction: complement
• Membrane Attack Complex (MAC)
– Embeds itself in the microbe membrane, forming pores
– Water and salt enter the microbe
Proteins released by liver to do the job: complement system
B lymphocytes
Transform into plasma cells and release antibodies into the circulation, which are proteins that tag the pathogens to signal the immune cells to destroy it
Form memory cells- every pathogen has specific surface receptors (signature), they can remember for next time how to fight the infection
Phagocytosis
Attatchment (opsonization)- Physically bind to pathogen
Internalization, turns into phagosome
Degradation- Fuses with lysosome and becomes phagolysosome, and after the digestive enzymes can be reused
Exocytosis- elimination of debris
What stimulates the hypothalamus to release its hormones?
It controls level of hormones by humoral mechanism, measures levels of other hormones and decides whether to release its hormones or not
Premature Contractions and Delivery
- A positive feedback loop develops (mechanical stimuli increase the release of oxytocin, and vice versa), and this converts Braxton-Hicks contractions into stronger labor contractions.
- In the early stage of labor, contractions gradually become more frequent and intense until they haveopened the cervix.
- In the delivery stage, the baby’s head moves into the vagina and becomes visible from the outside.
- The usual head-down position of the baby comes about during the seventh month of pregnancy.
First trimester
embryo becomes a fetus
Heart begins to beat by week 4
Limbs form by week 8
The first trimester is the period during which the fetus is most susceptible to damage from radiation, drugs, chemicals, and agents that cause birth defects.
The hormone hCG (human chorionic gonadotropin) is released after implantation and is an early indicator of pregnancy
Pigments
Molecules that absorb specific wavelengths in the visible range of the spectrum
Photons can have a wide range of wavelengths and energy levels
Dilation/contraction of pupils
Protection mechanism, neural layer getting adequate amount of light
Light reactions
Convert light energy to chemical energy as ATP and NADH
Extracellular matrix
Composed of fibrous proteins (like collagen) and glycoproteins
Epithelial cells (lining human body cavities) have basement membrane of extracellular material called the basal lamina
Cyclic electron transport
Electron from excited P700 chlorophyll molecule n photosystem one cycles back to the same chlorophyll molecule
Involves a series of exergonic redox reactions, the released energy creates a proton gradient that is used to synthesize ATP
Endocytosis
Processes that bring molecules and cells into a eukaryotic cell
Plasma membrane folds in (invaginates) around the material, forming a vesicle
Brain stem
Origin of majority of peripheral cranial nerves
Control centers for digestive, respiratory, and cardiovascular centers
Equilibrium and posture
Integration of input from spinal cord
Vital functions regulated (heart, respiration)
Lower half of the brain stem called medula oblongata
Extensive ER membrane system
Cells specialized for synthesizing proteins have these
Parasite
Any organism that invades and lives by the expense of another body
Most are animals, either micro or macroscopic
Infects muscles and digestive system takes blood (muscles) and nutrients (liver)
Where does Ca go?
Calcium ions released bind to troponin which has a calcium binding site
Troponin, which is bound to tropomyosin, slides away from the actin exposing the binding site of myosin (sliding filament theory)
Myosin binds to actin
Pressure change
Breathing associated with skeletal muscles that are constantly contracting and relaxing, gases are quantified by pressur
Atmospheric pressure (Patm)- pressure on the outside in the environment
Alveolar pressure (Palv)-pressure inside your lungs
Intrapleural pressure (Pip)- pressure in pleural sac, fills up with fluid that exerts pressure
Alveolar and interpleural pressure are constantly fluctuating because they depend on your state
Digestive (main) organs
• Mouth
• Pharynx
• Esophagus (upper 1/3 skeletal muscles)
• Stomach
• Small intestine (final digestion/aborption)
– Duodenum, jejunum, ileum
• Large intestine (Minimal processes, but mostly waste)
– Cecum, colon, rectum
• Anus
Gametes
- The gonads (testes and ovaries) are the sites of gametogenesis.
- Male gametes (sperm) move by beating flagella; female gametes (eggs or ova) arenonmotile.
Plasma membrane
Outer surface of every cell, more or less same structure in every cell
Phospholipid bilayer with proteins and other molecules imbedded
Oily fluid in which proteins and lipids are in constant motion
Plastids
Organelles found only in plants and some protists
Passive transport
No outside energy required (diffusion)
When a pigment molecule absorbs a photon (excited state) the energy can be-
Released as heat and/or light
Transferred to another molecule
Used for a chemical reaction
Second trimester
limbs elongate and facial features form
Control of breathing
Voluntary until it becomes physiologically dangerous, your brain will force you to breathe.
• Inspiration is initiated by stimulating the respiratory muscles
– Diaphragm and external intercostals
• The stimulation is initiated in the medullary centers and the pons
Medulla oblongata sends signal to spinal cord, phrenic nerve sends action potential to diaphragm. 100% controlled by brain unless you voluntarily change it, stimulation always occurring. Neurons called central patter generator, send action potentials then they stop, perfectly synced on/off mechanism
Tunica interna
Made of simple squamous epithelium (endothelium)
Provide smooth surface for blood to pass through
Specific Recognition Between Sperm and Egg
- Specific recognition molecules mediate interactions between sperm and eggs.
- This ensures that activities of the sperm are directed toward eggs and not other cells and prevents eggs from being fertilized by sperm of the wrong species.
- This latter function is particularly importantin aquatic species, such as sea urchins, that release sperm and eggs into the surrounding water.
Boyle’s law
Pressure and volume are inversely proportiona
Gases in a container, when volume decreased, pressure increases due to collision of gas molecules and now these gas molecules are confined to a smaller place, so more bombardment
Lungs are always changing in volume so the pressure changes as well with inspiration and expiration
Childbirth
- Passage of the baby is assisted by the mother’s bearing down with her abdominal muscles.
- Once the baby is clear of the birth canal it canstart breathing and become independent of the mother’s circulation, so the umbilical cord is clamped and cut.
- Finally, the placenta and fetal membranes are detached from the mother and expelled (several minutes–1 hour)
The pancreas
- Mixed gland that contain both endocrine and exocrine tissue
- The exocrine tissue contains two types of cells
- Duct cells secrete NaHCO3 and Bicarbonate release to neutralize acid
- Acina cells secrete pancreatic juice- Mixture of enzymes that are produced from pancreas
FSH/LH
Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) & luteinizing hormone (LH)
Produces gametes and sex hormones
Target organs: testes or ovaries
Alpha glucose
OH down, H up
Penis
The penis is a tubular shaft, the tip of which has sensitive skin called the glans penis that is very responsive to sexual stimulation
Accessory pigments
Transfer energy absorbed to chorophylls
Carotenoids and phycobilins
Absorb intermediate between red and blue
Anabolic reactions
Complex molecules are made from simple molecules, requires energy input, positive delta G, negative delta S
Ex: proteins made of amino acids, free energy is required
Macrophages in alveoli
Ward against foreign bodies, get rid of debris
Pressure and Volume Change
During inspiration the volume of the lungs increases and the pressure decreases- atmospheric pressure is higher than alveolar pressure, and diffusion can occur
During expiration, the volume of the lungs decreases and the pressure increases- alveolar pressure becomes higher than atmospheric pressure- diffusion outwards
Light
A form of electromagnetic radiation
Propagated as waves, energy of light is inversely proportional to wavelength (must be appropriate wavelength to be absorbed by receptive molecules
Light also behaves as particles called photons, plants absorb these
Efferent neurons
Sends information from CNS
Sterile cotton swab
Collect microorganisms by smearing on surface
Put on a culture dish with solution called tryptic soy agar, which has nutrients that make bacteria reproduce so you can see them
Photosynthesis in noncyclic electron electron transport
Each photosystem consists of several chlorophyll and accessory pigment molecules
Complement each other, must be constantly absorbing light energy to power noncyclic electron transport
Control of breathing
Voluntary until it becomes physiologically dangerous, your brain will force you to breathe.
• Inspiration is initiated by stimulating the respiratory muscles
– Diaphragm and external intercostals
• The stimulation is initiated in the medullary centers and the pons
Medulla oblongata sends signal to spinal cord, phrenic nerve sends action potential to diaphragm. 100% controlled by brain unless you voluntarily change it, stimulation always occurring. Neurons called central patter generator, send action potentials then they stop, perfectly synced on/off mechanism
How do atoms bond to form molecules
Reactive atoms have unpaired electrons in their outermost shell, atoms share, gain, or lose electrons
Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis
Hypothalamus- releases CRH, is always in control by measuring the amount of cortisol, if levels are below the set point, mechanism is turned on to increase cortisol
Anterior pituitary- acted on by hypothalamus, stimulates release of ACTH, travels in circulation
Adrenal cortex- stimulated to release another hormone called cortisol which helps our body deal with long term stress (external factor that causes major changes in your body) body thinks starvation is happening and there is not enough energy, so cortisols major function is to make sure your brain is well protected and that it had adequate amount of energy available
Increases plasma concentration of glucose (for the use of the brain, muscles can’t use it) fatty acids, and amino acids (for the muscles as an energy replacement for glucose)
Voltage gated potassium channel
Protein channel specific to potassium
Triggered to open at threshold potential, delayed opening
Two states: closed at resting potential (-70mV to 30 mV), open (+30 mV to -80 mV)
Extracellular matrix
Composed of fibrous proteins (like collagen) and glycoproteins
Epithelial cells (lining human body cavities) have basement membrane of extracellular material called the basal lamina
Pulmonary veins
Bring back oxygenated blood from lungs to left atrium
Photosynthesis
“synthesis from light”
Plants take in CO2, produce carbohydrates, and release O2 and water
Light is required
6CO2 + 12H2O–> C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O
clitoris
the anatomical analog of the male penis that is capable of erection and is highly sensitive to sexual stimulation
Both the labia minora and clitoris become engorgedwith blood during sexual stimulation
Cleavage
a rapid series of celldivision, but no cell growth
In mammals cleavage is rotational:
First cell division is parallel to the animal–vegetal axis; yields two blastomeres.
In second division two blastomeres divide at right angles to each other;one is parallel to the axis and the other is perpendicular to it. This pattern of division is unique to mammals with placentas.
Allergy
Overactive or disproportionate immune system
Chemicals released
Anti histamine can be used (because histamine is the alarm)
Cristae
Folds of the inner membrane give rise to these
Contains large protein molecules used in cellular respiration
trophoblast
- In mammals, the first extraembryonic membrane to form is the trophoblast.
- When the blastocyst hatches from the zona pellucida, the trophoblast cells attach to the uterine wall, This is the beginning of implantation.
- The trophoblast becomes part of the uterine wall, and sends out villi to increase surface area and contact with maternal blood.
Ventricular systole
Physical contraction of muscle
Ventricles are squeezing out blood and decreasing in size.
Pulmonary and aortic valves are open
unidirectional blood flow, don’t want blood to return to the atrium so bicuspid and tricuspid valves are closed
Specific Recognition Between Sperm and Egg
- Specific recognition molecules mediate interactions between sperm and eggs.
- This ensures that activities of the sperm are directed toward eggs and not other cells and prevents eggs from being fertilized by sperm of the wrong species.
- This latter function is particularly importantin aquatic species, such as sea urchins, that release sperm and eggs into the surrounding water.
How Are Gases Transported?
• Once in the blood, oxygen is transported in two ways
– 1.5% is dissolved in the plasma and cytosol of erythrocytes
– 98.5 % Bound to hemoglobin
Light microscopes
Glass lenses focus visible light, max resolution of .2 um
Afferent neurons
Sends information to the central nervous system
Diameter of blood vessels
Blood vessels decrease in diameter when a part of your body is not in use, happens because of the tunica media.
Arteries- more tunica media because more regulation
Rest (tone), vasoconstriction, vasodilation
Light independent reactions
“dark reactions”
Use ATP and NADH from light reactions plus CO2 to produce carbohydrates (because coenzymes ATP and NADH are not stored, need light for light reaction first)
third trimester
internal organs mature and organ systems begin to function
The last organs to mature before birthare the lungs
Second law of thermodynamics
When energy is converted from one form to another, some of that energy becomes unavailable to do work, entropy (disorder) increases
No energy transformation is 100 percent efficient
free energy decreases and entropy increases
System of respiration
Constant exchange of air: ventilation (tidal volume)
Diffusion- oxygen from lungs to blood
Circulation- bulk transport
Diffusion of oxygen into cells
Cellular respiration
Alveolar type I cells
form the wall of the alveoli
Troponin
Three spherical subunits, three binding sites: actin, tropomyosin, calcium (calcium needed for contraction)
Pigments
Molecules that absorb specific wavelengths in the visible range of the spectrum
Photons can have a wide range of wavelengths and energy levels
labia majora and labia minora
The external opening of the vagina has two sets of folded skin, the labia majora and labia minora, which also surround the urethra
Labia majora equivalent of scrotum
Lania minora becomes engorged with blood
Exocytosis
Material in vesicles expelled from a cell
Indigestible materials and other materials such as digestive enzymes and neurotransmitters are expelled
Peroxisomes
Also called microbodies
Small organelles specialized to compartmentalize toxic peroxides and break them down
Break down of hydrogen peroxide through catalase
When a photon meets a molecule it can be-
Scattered- photon bounces off the molecule
Transmitted- photon passed through the molecule
Absorbed- molecule squires the energy of the photon. Goes from ground state to excited state, and disappears and energy is absorbed
Vasodilation & Increased Permeability
• Histamine causes vasodilation
– increases diameter, Increase in blood flow to infected area
– Redness occurs
– Increase delivery of proteins
– Edema occurs- swelling, fluid from blood cells into interstitial tissue
- increased permeability- proteins gain entry from blood to interstitial fluid
- objective- get more immune cells
How does photosynthesis convert light energy to chemical energy?
Reaction center converts light energy to chemical energy
Excited chlorophyll a molecule (Chl*) is a reducing agent (electron donor)
A is an acceptor molecule (oxidizing agent)
Chl* + A –> Chl+ + A-
A is the first in a chain of electron carriers on the thylakoid membrane (electron transport) a series of redox reactions
Final electron acceptor is NADP+
NADP+ + e- –> NADPH + H+
Hypotonic solution
Lower solute concentration
Animal cells may burst when placed in this solution
Ribosomes
Sites of protein synthesis
found free in cytoplasm, in mitochondria, bound to the endoplasmic reticulum, and in chloroplasts
Consist of ribosomal RNA and more than 50 other proteins
Path of the egg
the mature egg is released into the body cavity and is swept into the end of the oviduct (Fallopian tube) by an undulating fringe of tissue (Fertilization takes place in the oviduct and, in humans, the second meiotic division takes place)
Cilia lining the oviduct propel the fertilized or unfertilized egg toward the uterus, a muscular, thick-walled cavity
The opening at the bottom of the uterus is the cervix,which leads into the vagina
Fluorescence
When a pigment returns to ground state some of the energy may be given off as heat and some as fluorescence
Fluorescence has longer wavelengths and less energy than the absorbed light energy
No chemical work done
If pigment can pass the energy to another molecule, there’s no fluorescence, the energy can be passed to a reaction center where it is converted to chemical energy
Cell junctions
Tight junctions, desmosomes, gap junctions
Premature Contractions and Delivery
- A positive feedback loop develops (mechanical stimuli increase the release of oxytocin, and vice versa), and this converts Braxton-Hicks contractions into stronger labor contractions.
- In the early stage of labor, contractions gradually become more frequent and intense until they haveopened the cervix.
- In the delivery stage, the baby’s head moves into the vagina and becomes visible from the outside.
- The usual head-down position of the baby comes about during the seventh month of pregnancy.
Fertilization
Fertilization is the union of haploid sperm and haploid egg to produce a single diploid cell, the zygote
Hypotonic solution
Lower solute concentration
Animal cells may burst when placed in this solution
Rubisco
Enzyme that catalyzes fixation of CO2
Ribosome bisphosphate carboxylase/
Most abundant protein in the world, 50% of the protein in a leaf
Immunization
Series of shots
MMR- immunization shot against meals, mumps, rubella
Small quantity of pathogens to build immune response, memory cells to speed up recovery next time
AIDS
Acquired immune deficiency syndrome, viruses attack immune cells, vulnerable system open to opportunistic infection
Spina bifida
failure of the neural tube to fuse in a posterior region dueto vitamin B deficiency
Denaturation
Loss of a protein’s normal 3D structure
AIDS
Acquired immune deficiency syndrome, viruses attack immune cells, vulnerable system open to opportunistic infection
Diversity in sexual reproduction
- Despite the time, energy, and risk required, sexual (compared to asexual- Asexual, cells divide. Hard to get genetic university except for mutations) reproduction confers an overwhelming advantage: the production of genetic diversity.
- Sexual reproduction requires the joining of two haploid (1n) cells into one, which becomes a diploid (2n) individual.
- These haploid cells, or gametes, are produced by gametogenesis, involving 2 meiotic cell divisions.
Z scheme
Model of noncyclic electron transport
Extracts electrons from water and transfers them to NADPH, using energy from photosynthesis one and two and resulting in ATP synthesis
Yields ATP, NADPH, and O2
Connection between lungs and circulatory system
Closed connection between heart and lungs because lungs are the site for oxygen intake, circulatory picks up oxygen from lungs and delivers it to cells with heart as intermediate
Nonspecific immunity
Prevention
Attack- if it gets in the circulatory system
Axon hillock
Major area in the axon where the electrical signal is generated
Nonspecific Immune response/inflammation
• Occurs through cut or injury to the skin
• Sequence of events ensue to protect the body against infection
– Phagocytosis and recruitment
– Vasodilation and increase in permeability
– Phagocytic cells migration
– Tissue repair
Steps in neurulation
- The ectoderm over the notochord thickens and forms the neural plate.
- Edges of the neural plate fold and a deep groove forms.
- The folds fuse, forming the neural tube and a layer of ectoderm, The anterior end of the neural tube becomes the brain, the rest becomes the spinal cord
Phrenology
Francis Joseph gall, died 1918
Thought there were 27 brain organs each with different functions
If you touch someone’s head you can determine what their strengths are by the bumps on their head
Neutrophils
Most abundant phagocytic cells
Release:
Cytokines- alarming chemicals to alarm other immune cells
Vasodilators- increases size of blood cells, Make blood vessel bigger so immune cells can travel
Chemotaxins- chemo attractants, attract other immune cells, travel in blood vessels and squeeze out of them, can get anywhere in the body
Tunica media
Made of smooth muscles
Mediate vasoconstriction and vasodilation (controls diameter of blood vessels)
bulbourethral glands
produce a mucoid secretion that neutralizes acidity in the urethra and lubricates the tip of the penis
Split brain patient
The corpus callosum connects the lobes of the brain and allows them to communicate(if one has a seizure cutting of this stops spread of seizure impulses)
If a split brain patient picks something up with right hand they can figure it out, but if they touch it with the left hand they can not transfer information to left hemisphere where the speech function is
Phosphogens
Creatine phosphate
Arginine phosphate
These are molecules found in muscles with an attatched phosphate group, need an enzyme (creatine and arginine kinase) when added to ADP to make ATP
Vascular layer
Iris- colored part of eye, smooth muscle
Pupil- opening in smooth muscle, ensures light gets in
Ciliary muscles are smooth muscle, along with iris ensure light reaches neural layer, accommodation
Zonular fibers- attached to ciliary muscles, holds the lens in place (lens transmits light onto retina)
choroid- dark pigmented layer that contains blood vessels, traps light
Peripheral nervous system
Afferent division- sensations, environment, senses
-sensory stimuli (external) and visceral stimuli(organs)
Efferent division
-somatic(voluntary, skeletal muscles), autonomic (sympathetic (fight or flight) and parasympathetic (rest and digest) both lead to cardiac and smooth muscles)
Stoma
Mouth of plant
Co2 enters and O2/water exit through these pores
Protist
Uni or multicellular, contaminate lakes and drinking water to invade host
Microtubules
Hollow cylinders made from tubulin protein subunits
Provid rigid intracellular skeleton for some cells, function as tracks for motor proteins
Form and disassemble as the needs of the cell change
Form cilia and flagella
Photosynthesis in noncyclic electron electron transport
Each photosystem consists of several chlorophyll and accessory pigment molecules
Complement each other, must be constantly absorbing light energy to power noncyclic electron transport
Thalamus
Relay station for all synaptic input with exception of olfaction
Crude awareness of sensation
Motor control- communication with frontal lobe
Where sensations reached before being routed to the correct direction
Twinning
- If blastomeres separate into two groups, each can produce an embryo.
- Monozygotic twins come from the same zygote and are identical.
- Nonidentical twins are from two eggs fertilized by two sperm.
Oligosaccharides
May include other functional groups
Covalently bonded to proteins and lipids on cell surfaces and act as recognition signals
Human blood groups get specificity from oligosaccharide chains
Acid
Releases hydrogen ions through ionization, ph less than 7
Nonspecific Immune response/inflammation
• Occurs through cut or injury to the skin
• Sequence of events ensue to protect the body against infection
– Phagocytosis and recruitment
– Vasodilation and increase in permeability
– Phagocytic cells migration
– Tissue repair
Functional group
Groups of atoms with specific chemical properties and consistent behavior
Each macromolecule has at least one
How is myelin made?
Schwann cells make it in PNS
Oligodendrocites make it in CNS
Non cyclic electron transport
Light energy is used to oxidize water, produces O2, H+, and electrons
After excitation by light, Chl+ is an unstable molecule and seeks electrons
Chl+ is a stron oxidizing agent and takes electrons from water, splitting the water molecule
How does photosynthesis convert light energy to chemical energy?
Reaction center converts light energy to chemical energy
Excited chlorophyll a molecule (Chl*) is a reducing agent (electron donor)
A is an acceptor molecule (oxidizing agent)
Chl* + A –> Chl+ + A-
A is the first in a chain of electron carriers on the thylakoid membrane (electron transport) a series of redox reactions
Final electron acceptor is NADP+
NADP+ + e- –> NADPH + H+
Photosystem 2
Light energy oxidizes water to oxygen, H+, and electrons
Reaction center has chlorophyll a molecules: P680 absorbs at 680 nm (more energetic than P700)
Excited first
Pressure change
Breathing associated with skeletal muscles that are constantly contracting and relaxing, gases are quantified by pressur
Atmospheric pressure (Patm)- pressure on the outside in the environment
Alveolar pressure (Palv)-pressure inside your lungs
Intrapleural pressure (Pip)- pressure in pleural sac, fills up with fluid that exerts pressure
Alveolar and interpleural pressure are constantly fluctuating because they depend on your state
Premature Contractions and Delivery
- A positive feedback loop develops (mechanical stimuli increase the release of oxytocin, and vice versa), and this converts Braxton-Hicks contractions into stronger labor contractions.
- In the early stage of labor, contractions gradually become more frequent and intense until they haveopened the cervix.
- In the delivery stage, the baby’s head moves into the vagina and becomes visible from the outside.
- The usual head-down position of the baby comes about during the seventh month of pregnancy.
Focusing on near objects
Ciliary muscles contracted, zonular fibers are loose
Lens is thick and rounded to focus near objects
Phagocytosis
Molecules or entire cells are engulfed
Some protists feed in this way
White blood cells engulf foreign substances
A food vacuole (phagosome) forms and fuses with a lysosome
Osmosis
Diffusion of water
Depends on number of solute particles present, not the type of particles
If two solutions are separated by a membrane that allows water but not solutes to pass through the water will diffuse of the region of higher water concentration to the region of lower water concentration
(water will go from hypotonic to hypertonic)
Two systems of electron transport
Non cyclic electron transport- produces NADPH and ATP
Cyclic electron transport- produces ATP only
- when you need more sugar you need more ATP than NADH, so cyclic transport is needed
Gap junctions
Allow communication, transmit current through channels
Regulated and controlled by ions
Electronegativity
Depends on number of + charges in the nucleus and the distances of the electron from the nucleus
What Affects Hb-OxygenBinding?
Demands for oxygen changing depending on your state. (if sitting, cells in legs not picking up that much oxygen) so ATP production chants, and more ATP produced the more oxygen you get delivered. Waste products signify how much ATP you are making so your red blood cells know.
- BPG (2,3 Bisphosphoglyceric acid)- BPG by product of glycolysis- when increases, unload more oxygen.
- Temperature
- Acidity- lactic acid is byproduct of fermentation
Branching of the airways
Conducting zone: trachea, primary bronchi, secondary bronchi, tertiary bronchi, bronchioles
Respiratory zone: respiratory bronchioles, alveoli (each alveolus is covered with many capillaries to facilitate the exchange of materials)
Some enzymes require other molecules in order to function
Prosthetic groups- non amino acid groups bound permanently to enzymes
Cofactors- inorganic ions
Coenzymes- small carbon containing molecule that moves from enzyme to enzyme adding and subtracting chemical groups
Light reactions
Convert light energy to chemical energy as ATP and NADH
Limit of resolution
.61 x wavelength / NA
NA= refractive index x sine of angle of most oblique ray
seminiferous tubules
- Spermatogenesis takes place in the seminiferous tubules of the testis.
- Each tubule is lined with a stratified epithelium, within which spermatogoniareside and mature into sperm cells
Production of sperm is temperature dependent- if cold scrotum will cuddle against body
Stem cells can divide and divide and divide make sperm
Lysosomes
Vesicles containing digestive enzymes that come in part from the Golgi
Sites for breakdown of food and foreign material brought into the cell by phagocytosis
Detection of spent cellular components- autophagy- cell components are frequently destroyed and replaced with new ones
Glycogen
Storage of glucose in animals
Highly branched
Parts of the respiratory system
Nasal/oral cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, primary/secondary/tertiary bronchus, bronchioles (if you don’t need a lot of oxygen bronchioles are slightly constricted), alveoli (site of exchange)
All made of cartilage up to the trachea
Pulmonary trunk
Takes deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the lungs
Very big, can see with naked eye.
Splits, and goes to two lungs
What Affects Hb-OxygenBinding?
Demands for oxygen changing depending on your state. (if sitting, cells in legs not picking up that much oxygen) so ATP production chants, and more ATP produced the more oxygen you get delivered. Waste products signify how much ATP you are making so your red blood cells know.
- BPG (2,3 Bisphosphoglyceric acid)- BPG by product of glycolysis- when increases, unload more oxygen.
- Temperature
- Acidity- lactic acid is byproduct of fermentation
Photo system 1
Light energy reduces NADP+ to NADPH
Reaction center has chlorophyll a molecules: P700 absorbs in the 700nm range
First law of thermodynamics
Energy is neither created or destroyed
When energy is convertd from one form to another, the total energy before and after the conversion is the same
Layers of arteries vs layers of veins
Veins have bigger lumen, thinner tunica media, thinner tunica external, have valves
Main factors for molecular movement through a membrane
Driving force (in what direction)
Permeability (through what)
Unsaturated fatty acids
Some double bonds in carbon chain
Double bonds prevent tight packing, lipid monlayer more fluid, liquid at room temperature
Monounsaturated: one double bond
Polyunsaturated: more than one
Rough ER
Has ribosomes attached
Desmosomes
“spot welds,” link adjacent cells tightly nit permit materials to move around them in the intercellular space
How does photosynthesis convert light energy to chemical energy?
Reaction center converts light energy to chemical energy
Excited chlorophyll a molecule (Chl*) is a reducing agent (electron donor)
A is an acceptor molecule (oxidizing agent)
Chl* + A –> Chl+ + A-
A is the first in a chain of electron carriers on the thylakoid membrane (electron transport) a series of redox reactions
Final electron acceptor is NADP+
NADP+ + e- –> NADPH + H+
CO2 fixation
CO2 is reduced to carbohydrates
Enzymes in the stroma use the energy in ATP and NADPH to reduce CO2
Because the ATP and NADPH are not “stockpiled,” these light independent reactions must also take place in light
Entry of Sperm into the Egg
- In animals with internal fertilization, egg–sperm recognition mechanisms also exist.
- In the female reproductive tract, mammalian sperm are metabolically activated and attracted to the egg in the oviduct, but also aided in their movement by muscular contractions.
- The mammalian egg is surrounded by a thick layer called the cumulus. Beneath that is a protein envelope called the zona pellucida.
- A species-specific glycoprotein in the zona pellucida binds to the head of the sperm.
- The acrosomal reaction is triggered, releasing acrosomal enzymes that digest a path through the zona pellucida
Inner cell mass
• The inner cell mass of the blastocyst splits into an epiblast and hypoblast with a fluid-filled cavity in
between (just like the reptilian and avian gastrula).
- The embryo forms from the epiblast.
- The epiblast also splits off a layer of cells that form the amnion. The amnion grows around the developing embryo.
- The hypoblast cells extend to form the chorion. Thechorion and other tissues produce the placenta.
- The epiblast produces the amnion. Allantoic tissues form the umbilical cord.
Two systems of electron transport
Non cyclic electron transport- produces NADPH and ATP
Cyclic electron transport- produces ATP only
- when you need more sugar you need more ATP than NADH, so cyclic transport is needed
Primary lysosomes
Originate from Golgi apparatus
Contain digestive enzymes- macromolecules are hydrolyzed into monomers
Primary lysosomes
Originate from Golgi apparatus
Contain digestive enzymes- macromolecules are hydrolyzed into monomers
Arrangement of microtubules in flagella and cilia
9+2 array- 9 pairs and 2 individual microtubules in center
At the base of flagella and cilia is the nasal body, the 9 rings extend there
Extracellular destruction: complement
• Membrane Attack Complex (MAC)
– Embeds itself in the microbe membrane, forming pores
– Water and salt enter the microbe
Proteins released by liver to do the job: complement system
Autoimmune disease
Immune system turned against you, attacks a particular tissue
- diabetes type 1: attacks beta cells that produce insulin
- multiple sclerosis: attacks myelin, slows electrical activities
- rheumatoid arthritis: attacks joints
First trimester
embryo becomes a fetus
Heart begins to beat by week 4
Limbs form by week 8
The first trimester is the period during which the fetus is most susceptible to damage from radiation, drugs, chemicals, and agents that cause birth defects.
The hormone hCG (human chorionic gonadotropin) is released after implantation and is an early indicator of pregnancy
Exocytosis
Material in vesicles expelled from a cell
Indigestible materials and other materials such as digestive enzymes and neurotransmitters are expelled
Three classes of hormonal composition
Steriod- lipid soluble, can permeate through the membrane, receptor inside the cell
proteins (peptides)- cannot permeate through membrane because it is water soluble, receptor on plasma membrane
amines are made of one amino acid- in between
During gastrulation, three germ layers form
– The inner germ layer is the endoderm and gives rise to the digestive tract, circulatory tract, and respiratory tract.
– The outer layer, the ectoderm, gives rise to the epidermis and nervous system.
– The middle layer, the mesoderm, contributes to bone, muscle, liver, heart, and blood vessels
Myeloid progenitor cells
Blood/platelets or immune cells produced
Types of immune cells:
Granular cells- neutrophils, mast cells
agranular cells- monocytes, macrophages,
Phospholipid belayer
Hydrophobic tails line up and the hydrophilic heads face outward
Steps in neurulation
- The ectoderm over the notochord thickens and forms the neural plate.
- Edges of the neural plate fold and a deep groove forms.
- The folds fuse, forming the neural tube and a layer of ectoderm, The anterior end of the neural tube becomes the brain, the rest becomes the spinal cord
Systemic circulation
Delivers oxygenated blood from the heart to the body
long distance circuit
Light
A form of electromagnetic radiation
Propagated as waves, energy of light is inversely proportional to wavelength (must be appropriate wavelength to be absorbed by receptive molecules
Light also behaves as particles called photons, plants absorb these
Channel proteins
Central pore lined with amino acids
Branching of the airways
Conducting zone: trachea, primary bronchi, secondary bronchi, tertiary bronchi, bronchioles
Respiratory zone: respiratory bronchioles, alveoli (each alveolus is covered with many capillaries to facilitate the exchange of materials)
Cilia
Shorter, present in great numbers
Ovarian cycle steps
1- primary oocytes (2n) are present in the ovary at birth
2- about once a month, between puberty and menopause, 6-12 primary oocytes begin to mature. A primary oocyte and it’s surrounding cells is called a follicle
3- the developing oocyte is nourished by follicle cells which also produce estrogen
4- after one week, usually only one primary oocyte begins to develop. A meiotic division just before ovulation creates the secondary oocyte (n). First polar body
5- at ovulation on the 14th day, the follicle ruptures and releases the egg which is caught by the Fallopian t uses
6- remaining follicle cells create the corpus lutenum, which produces progesterone and estrogen
7-if pregnancy does not occur, the corpus lutenum degenerates
Pili
Threadlike structures, help bacteria adhere to one another during mating or to other cells for food and protection
Some prokaryotes have these
Boyle’s law
Pressure and volume are inversely proportiona
Gases in a container, when volume decreased, pressure increases due to collision of gas molecules and now these gas molecules are confined to a smaller place, so more bombardment
Lungs are always changing in volume so the pressure changes as well with inspiration and expiration
Blastocoel
a central fluid-filled cavity that forms in the ball of cells
The embryo becomes a blastula and its cells are called blastomeres
Desmosomes
“spot welds,” link adjacent cells tightly nit permit materials to move around them in the intercellular space
System of respiration
Constant exchange of air: ventilation (tidal volume)
Diffusion- oxygen from lungs to blood
Circulation- bulk transport
Diffusion of oxygen into cells
Cellular respiration
Blastomere
- Blastomeres become determined, or committed toa specific fate, at different times in different animals.
- Roundworm and clam blastomeres are already determined at the 8-cell stage.
- If one cell is removed, a portion of the embryo fails to develop normally. This is called mosaic development.
- Humans have regulative development. If some cells are lost during cleavage, other cells can compensate. For genetic testing in humans, one cell can be removed from a blastula following in vitro fertilization. If there are no mutations in the gene of interest, that blastula can be implanted
Facilitated diffusion of polar molecules
Passive transport of polar molecules
AIDS
Acquired immune deficiency syndrome, viruses attack immune cells, vulnerable system open to opportunistic infection
Absorption spectrum
Plot of wavelengths absorbed by a pigment
trophoblast
- In mammals, the first extraembryonic membrane to form is the trophoblast.
- When the blastocyst hatches from the zona pellucida, the trophoblast cells attach to the uterine wall, This is the beginning of implantation.
- The trophoblast becomes part of the uterine wall, and sends out villi to increase surface area and contact with maternal blood.
Sharp object penetrating skin
Easiest way to get infected by a pathogen
Some cells are already in the vicinity, they destroy and then call for back up
Phagocytosis & Recruitment
- Macrophages in the nearby tissue detect bacteria using receptor proteins to engulf them
- Macrophages release cytokines- chemicals for recruitment
- Mast cells release histamine- causes vasodilation
- Injured cells release chemotaxins- chemo attractants to attract immune cells
Other roles for nucleotides
ATP- energy transducer in biochemical reactions
GTP- energy source in protein synthesis
cAMP- essential to the action of hormones and transmission of information in the nervous system
Plastids
Organelles found only in plants and some protists
Bone marrow
Produces mulitpotent hematopoietic cell, which in return can be a myeloid or a lymphoid progenitor cel
Stem cells- have not differentiated yet, blood stem cells can become blood cells
Polymers
Formed by covalent linkages of smaller units called monomers
Rubisco
Enzyme that catalyzes fixation of CO2
Ribosome bisphosphate carboxylase/
Most abundant protein in the world, 50% of the protein in a leaf
AIDS
Acquired immune deficiency syndrome, viruses attack immune cells, vulnerable system open to opportunistic infection
Alveolar type I cells
form the wall of the alveoli
uterine cycle
- The uterine cycle parallels the ovarian cycle and involves the buildup, then breakdown, of the endometrium.
- About five days into the ovarian cycle, the endometrium builds in preparation for the blastocyst.
- About five days after ovulation, the uterus is maximally prepared and stays that way for another nine days.
- If the blastocyst does not arrive by then, the endometrium breaks down and sloughs off during menstruation.
Covalent bonds
Atoms share one or more electrons so that the outer shells are filled
Neutrophils
Most abundant phagocytic cells
Release:
Cytokines- alarming chemicals to alarm other immune cells
Vasodilators- increases size of blood cells, Make blood vessel bigger so immune cells can travel
Chemotaxins- chemo attractants, attract other immune cells, travel in blood vessels and squeeze out of them, can get anywhere in the body
Light independent reactions
“dark reactions”
Use ATP and NADH from light reactions plus CO2 to produce carbohydrates (because coenzymes ATP and NADH are not stored, need light for light reaction first)
Boyle’s law
Pressure and volume are inversely proportiona
Gases in a container, when volume decreased, pressure increases due to collision of gas molecules and now these gas molecules are confined to a smaller place, so more bombardment
Lungs are always changing in volume so the pressure changes as well with inspiration and expiration
Nucleus
Contains most of the cells DNA and is the site of DNA duplication to support cell reproduction
Plays role in DNA control of cell activities
Light microscopes
Glass lenses focus visible light, max resolution of .2 um
GHRH
Growth hormone releasing hormone
Stimulates release of GH
Nonspecific immunity
Prevention
Attack- if it gets in the circulatory system
The immune system
Protects against infection and microbes
Isolates and removes non microbial foreign substances
CO2 fixation
CO2 is reduced to carbohydrates
Enzymes in the stroma use the energy in ATP and NADPH to reduce CO2
Because the ATP and NADPH are not “stockpiled,” these light independent reactions must also take place in light
CO2 fixation
CO2 is reduced to carbohydrates
Enzymes in the stroma use the energy in ATP and NADPH to reduce CO2
Because the ATP and NADPH are not “stockpiled,” these light independent reactions must also take place in light
Barriers to infection
Physical barriers
Chemical barriers
Reflexes
Alveolar type II cells
Secrete surfactant which keeps the alveoli from collapsing
Chemical barriers
Sebum- oily acidic substance released from sebaceous glands
Lacrimal glands- tears protect sclera and cornea, dripping through nasal cavity, washing of the eye
Lysozymes- degrading/digestive enzymes secreted from the mucous membranes
Defensins- peptides secreted from the mucous membranes
Ear wax- things get stuck
Sweat- cools body and at same time destroys microorganisms on skin, B.O. Is the degradation of bacteria on skin
Macrophages- immune cells
Stomach acid- HCl, damaging
Saliva
Sterile cotton swab
Collect microorganisms by smearing on surface
Put on a culture dish with solution called tryptic soy agar, which has nutrients that make bacteria reproduce so you can see them
Acinar cells
• Acinar cells release three classes of enzymes into the duodenal lumen
– Proteolytic enzymes: trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen, and procarboxypeptidase (All enzymes that digest proteins are released in inactive form, so they can be activated when you need them and specifically digest dietary proteins instead of proteins found on the membranes of cells)
– Pancreatic amylase (digest polysaccharides into disaccharides), Completes digestion of carbohydrates
– Pancreatic lipase (digest triglycerides into glycerol and fatty acids), Needs bile from the liver to perform its function
Neural pathway of vision
Nasal or temporal retina, Optic nerve, Optic chiasm, Optic tract, Lateral geniculate nucleus (in thalamus), Visual cortex
Two optic nerves (bundle of axons) meet to form the optic chiasm
Seem axons cross to the opposite side of the brain forming optic tracts
Fibers pass to the thalamus
Signals sent from thalamus to the visual cortex
Cytotoxic T Cell
Release perform and granzymes
Induce apoptosis (Fas)
Attack cancer cells which stop mitosis regulation and keep dividing- they bond to these and release perforins that poke h ones in the membrane, eater can go in, releases granzymes in the hole or proteins that activate apoptosis
Inspiration
Diaphragm- Lungs physically sit on diaphragm, main muscle for respiration, pushes down during inspiration
External intercostal muscles- contact and push down
Cell theory
Cells are the fundamental units of life
All organisms are composed of cells
All cells come from preexisting cells
How is Carbon Dioxide Transported?
5-6% dissolved in plasma
5-8% bind to hemoglobin at a different binding site than oxygen
86-90% converted to hydrogen ions and bicarbonate by enzyme called carbonic anhydrase. When co2 goes up hydrogen ions go up and ph decreases, and vice versa. Want ph of 7.4
Brain/heart relation?
Heart does not need brain to function, brain can regulate heart activities but does not initiate activity- has special cells called pacemaker cells scattered all over the heart
What makes organ systems?
Organs, tissues, and cells
75 trillion cells in body, 200 types of cells, grouped together and called tissues (group of cells with common functions) 4 major types of tissue
Photosystem 2
Light energy oxidizes water to oxygen, H+, and electrons
Reaction center has chlorophyll a molecules: P680 absorbs at 680 nm (more energetic than P700)
Excited first
Cilia
Shorter, present in great numbers
Nucleotides
Monomers of nucleic acid
Pentoses sugar, phosphate group, nitrogen containing base
(without phosphate group called nucleosides)
Metal ion catalysis
Metals on side chains lose or gain electrons without detaching from the enzymes
Microtubules
Hollow cylinders made from tubulin protein subunits
Provid rigid intracellular skeleton for some cells, function as tracks for motor proteins
Form and disassemble as the needs of the cell change
Form cilia and flagella
Fungi
Yeast is a unicellular form
Ex: athlete’s foot
Measuring G, H, and S
Change in ach at constant temp can be measured in calories or joules
If delta G is positive, free energy is needed, anabolic. Free energy stored
Delta G negative, free energy is released, catabolic
Physical barriers
Skin- brick layers of cells, most pathogens can’t get through it, also produces a hard and fibrous protein called keratin. The closest layer to the surface has the highest amount of keratin- the outermost layer of skin is dead, it produced too much keratin to function
Fibrous layer of the eyes
Mucous membrane of the respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive systems, and ear- thick membrane that prevents pathogens from getting into the circulation
Cilia
Non cyclic electron transport
Light energy is used to oxidize water, produces O2, H+, and electrons
After excitation by light, Chl+ is an unstable molecule and seeks electrons
Chl+ is a stron oxidizing agent and takes electrons from water, splitting the water molecule
Light
A form of electromagnetic radiation
Propagated as waves, energy of light is inversely proportional to wavelength (must be appropriate wavelength to be absorbed by receptive molecules
Light also behaves as particles called photons, plants absorb these
Equilibrium
Particles continue to move but there is no net change in distribution
Net movement is directional until equilibrium is reached
Ingredients for photosynthesis
Co2 reduced to sugars that travel throughout the plant body
Water up taken by roots
Water and oxygen released
Erections
sexually aroused male’s autonomic nervous system causes penis blood vessel dilation. The nerve endings release nitric oxide, (NO, a gas) a neurotransmitter that stimulates the production of cGMP a second messenger that acts on the blood vessels
This swells the spongy, erectile tissue and compresses the blood flow from the penis
Tissues
Epithelial tissue-Skin, lining of organs, lining of stomach, lining of heart, all epithelial
Connective tissue
Muscle tissue
Nervous tissue
Complement system
Pore formation: First complement protein (inactive), cascade of protein activation in bacterial cell
Swelling: fluid rushes into cells
Lysis
Roles of Golgi apparatus
Receive proteins from ER and modify them
Concentrate/package/sort proteins before they are sent to their destinations
Sme polysaccharides for plant cell walls are synthesized
Path of zygote
- Still in the oviduct, the zygote divides to become a blastocyst and continues down the oviduct.
- In the uterus, the blastocyst attaches to the wall lining called the endometrium.
Digestion: Polymers Vs Monomers
Body only cares about three major molecules, you are consuming them in the polymer, want to break down into individual units that we can absorb
- Proteins are broken down to amino acids
- Carbohydrates are broken down to glucose, fructose, galactose
- Lipids are broken down to fatty acids
Transmural pressure
The pressure difference between two membranes
ejaculation
(orgasm), contractions of the muscles at the base of the penis force semen throughthe urethra and out of the penis
After ejaculation, the autonomic nervous system causes constriction of the vessels in the penis and thus a decrease in blood pressure in the erectile tissue; the compression of blood vessels leaving the penis is relieved and the erection declines
Where Does Fertilization Take Place?
- Fertilization in mammals occurs in the upper oviduct; cleavage occurs as the zygote travels down the oviduct.
- When the blastocyst arrives in the uterus, the trophoblast adheres to the uterine wall (the endometrium), which begins the process of implantation.
- Early implantation in the oviduct wall is prevented by the zona pellucida. Inadvertent implantationcauses a tubal pregnancy, which is very dangerous.
- In the uterus, the blastocyst hatches out of the zona pellucida, and implantation can occur.
- Stimulated by estrogen, the endometrium develops new blood vessels to cradle the blastocyst.
- The blastocyst burrows in (implantation), interacting with the wall to form the placenta.
labia majora and labia minora
The external opening of the vagina has two sets of folded skin, the labia majora and labia minora, which also surround the urethra
Labia majora equivalent of scrotum
Lania minora becomes engorged with blood
ACTH
Adrenocorticotropic hormone
Helps body cope with stress
Target organ: adrenal cortex
Entry of Sperm into the Egg
- In animals with internal fertilization, egg–sperm recognition mechanisms also exist.
- In the female reproductive tract, mammalian sperm are metabolically activated and attracted to the egg in the oviduct, but also aided in their movement by muscular contractions.
- The mammalian egg is surrounded by a thick layer called the cumulus. Beneath that is a protein envelope called the zona pellucida.
- A species-specific glycoprotein in the zona pellucida binds to the head of the sperm.
- The acrosomal reaction is triggered, releasing acrosomal enzymes that digest a path through the zona pellucida
Mast cells
- Mast cells are found throughout connective tissues (not found in blood)
- They release histamine and other chemicals involved in inflammation
TSH
Thyroid stimulating hormone
Increases rate of metabolism
Target cell: thyroid gland
Hemoglobin
Hemoglobin is a metal (iron) that is positively charged, and oxygen negatively charged, so they bind
Carbohydrates
Have carbon and water
Source and transport of stored energy
Carbon skeletons for many other molecules
Transmural pressure
The pressure difference between two membranes
Z scheme
Model of noncyclic electron transport
Extracts electrons from water and transfers them to NADPH, using energy from photosynthesis one and two and resulting in ATP synthesis
Yields ATP, NADPH, and O2
Roles of the plasma membrane
Selectively permeable barrier
Interface for cells where info is received from adjacent cells and extracellular signals
Allows cells to maintain a constant internal environment
Molecules responsible for binding to adjacent cells
Bone marrow
Produces mulitpotent hematopoietic cell, which in return can be a myeloid or a lymphoid progenitor cel
Stem cells- have not differentiated yet, blood stem cells can become blood cells
Second trimester
limbs elongate and facial features form
Voltage gated sodium channel
Protein channel specific to sodium
Triggered to open at threshold potential, needs change in electrical activity to open, opens very quickly and Na+ rushes through
3states- closed at resting potential, open (-55 to +30 mV), and inactivated (+30mV to -70mV)- undergoes conformational change and a protein blocks the mouth of the channel, needs to close after inactivation to open again
Oogenesis steps
Female germ cell (2n)
Mitosis
Oogonium (2n)
Mitosis
Primary oocyte (2n)
First meiotic division
Secondary oocyte (n) and first polar body
Second meiotic division, independent assortment of chromosomes
Ootid (n) and second polar body
Ovum (egg) (n), polar bodies degrade
Specific Recognition Between Sperm and Egg
- Specific recognition molecules mediate interactions between sperm and eggs.
- This ensures that activities of the sperm are directed toward eggs and not other cells and prevents eggs from being fertilized by sperm of the wrong species.
- This latter function is particularly importantin aquatic species, such as sea urchins, that release sperm and eggs into the surrounding water.
Humoral mechanism
way of triggering, gland measuring concentration of certain things in your blood
Calcium in blood must be maintained at a constant level in blood, important for neurotransmitters and muscle contraction, heart, messenger, etc. so need constant level. Get ca from diet and store it in our blood. If goes below the normal level we must bring it back up. Behind thyroid gland there is are 4 tiny glands called parathyroid glands (acts as control center), main function is to maintain calcium homeostasis, monitor calcium level in blood and releases parathyroid hormone if too low, is peptide hormone. Target organ is bones (where we store calcium) , bone cells respond to it and release calcium into the circulation, active until ca back to normal, negative feedback mechanism
Two systems related to muscles in heart
Within a heartbeat, it pumps both ways simultaneously, pulmonary circuit doesn’t require as much work as systemic, so left side has more muscle thickness because that is where it pumps the blood to the rest of the body
What triggers the pancreas to increase its contents?
Duodenum senses specific molecules in the diet and cells are triggered to start the process of release, two hormones released from the duodenum
- secretin acts on duct cells, stomach acid can be neutralized by the bicarbonate released
- Cholecystokinin (CCK) travels in the circulation to activate acinar cells to release pancreatic juice and enzymes in vesicles that break down protein and fat
Photosystem
Multiple antenna systems, surround reaction centers
Pigments packed together on thylakoids membrane proteins
Excitation energy passes from the pigments that absorb short wavelengths to those that absorb longer wavelengths, and ends up in the reaction center pigment
Salts
Ionically bonded compounds
Alveolar type I cells
form the wall of the alveoli
Pupils in dim light
Radial smooth muscles(outer) contract, pupil dilates
Monosaccharides with different numbers of carbons
Hexoses: six carbons, has structural isomers (mannose, galactose, fructose)
Pentoses: five carbons (ribose has OH, deoxyribose is more stable, has H)
Diffusion
Process of random movement toward equilibrium
Net movement from regions of greater concentration to regions of lesser concentration
Works well over short distances
affected by membrane properties- permeable to salutes that move easily across it, impermeable to those that can’t
System of respiration
Constant exchange of air: ventilation (tidal volume)
Diffusion- oxygen from lungs to blood
Circulation- bulk transport
Diffusion of oxygen into cells
Cellular respiration
Levels of organization in skeletal muscles
Each myofibrils made of functional units of contraction called sarcomeres
Each sarcomere is bound by a network of interconnecting proteins called Z lines
Thick filaments are composed of a contractile protein (myosin)
Thin filaments contain a contractile protein (actin) and two regulatory proteins (troponin and tropomyosin)
Ruben and kamen
Used radioisotope tracers (O18 and O16) to determine that water was the source of O2 released during photosynthesis rather than CO2
Light independent reactions
“dark reactions”
Use ATP and NADH from light reactions plus CO2 to produce carbohydrates (because coenzymes ATP and NADH are not stored, need light for light reaction first)
Cations
Positive
Compliance
Ability to change volume and pressure
Balloon is like the lungs- highly compliant
Paper bag- not compliant
Parts of the respiratory system
Nasal/oral cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, primary/secondary/tertiary bronchus, bronchioles (if you don’t need a lot of oxygen bronchioles are slightly constricted), alveoli (site of exchange)
All made of cartilage up to the trachea
Macrophages in alveoli
Ward against foreign bodies, get rid of debris
Transmural pressure
The pressure difference between two membranes
Limit of resolution for light microscopy
.61 x .4u / 1.4 = .17u
Accessory pigments
Transfer energy absorbed to chorophylls
Carotenoids and phycobilins
Absorb intermediate between red and blue
Saltatory conductance part 2
Previous active node returned to resting potential, and now adjacent node is at peak of action potential
Eventually goes from axon hillock to axon terminal
Blastocyst
When blastula reaches 16 to 32 cells, it divides into two groups:
- Inner cell mass: becomes the embryo
- Trophoblast: a sac that forms from the outer cells. Its cells secrete fluid and create the blastocoel, with the inner cell mass at one end. Embryo is now called a blastocyst.
Enzyme-substrate complex
Held together by hydrogen bonds, electrical attraction, or covalent bonds
Enzyme might change shape when bound to the substrate, but returns to its original form
Electrocardiogram
Recording the electrical activities of the heart
3 sets of electrodes on two wrists, one on ankle, surface electrodes on skin pick up electrical activities from the heart, electrical activity comes from action potentials
Extracellular recording- recording sum of action potential and a high response is expected, but you get one kilovolt because of how far your surface skin is from your heart
Control of breathing
Voluntary until it becomes physiologically dangerous, your brain will force you to breathe.
• Inspiration is initiated by stimulating the respiratory muscles
– Diaphragm and external intercostals
• The stimulation is initiated in the medullary centers and the pons
Medulla oblongata sends signal to spinal cord, phrenic nerve sends action potential to diaphragm. 100% controlled by brain unless you voluntarily change it, stimulation always occurring. Neurons called central patter generator, send action potentials then they stop, perfectly synced on/off mechanism
Alveolar type II cells
Secrete surfactant which keeps the alveoli from collapsing
Photo system 1
Light energy reduces NADP+ to NADPH
Reaction center has chlorophyll a molecules: P700 absorbs in the 700nm range
Processes in Calvin Benson cycle
Fixation of CO2 by combination with RuBP (catalyzes by rubisco)
Conversion of fixed CO2 into carbohydrate G3P (using ATP and NADPH)
Regeneration of CO2 acceptor RuBP by ATP
Microbes
Harmful substances, living or dead
Saturated fatty acids
No double bonds between carbons, saturated with H+ atoms
Close packing of phospholipids into a monolayer, solid at room temperature
What stimulates the hypothalamus to release its hormones?
It controls level of hormones by humoral mechanism, measures levels of other hormones and decides whether to release its hormones or not
Neural mechanism
Neurons stimulate glands to release hormones
Tiny gland that sits on top of kidneys called adrenal gland- Inner layer called adrenal medulla, releases hormone called epinephrine, which helps you deal with stress, part of sympathetic nervous system, increases heart rate etc
When a pigment molecule absorbs a photon (excited state) the energy can be-
Released as heat and/or light
Transferred to another molecule
Used for a chemical reaction
Cerebral spinal fluid
Produced by group of ependamyl (glial) cells and blood vessels called choroid plexus
Flows through and around the brain in a perfect circuit
We synthesize 500ml a day
Calvin cycle stimulated by light
Protons pumped form stroma into thylakoids, increasing the pH which favors the activation of rubisco
Electron flow from photosystem one reduces disulfide bonds to activate calvin cycle enzymes
Anions
Negative
third trimester
internal organs mature and organ systems begin to function
The last organs to mature before birthare the lungs
Phagocytic cell migration
- The cytokines released by macrophages signal the endothelial cells to express selectin
- Margination occurs- dock and fuse with membrane, carbohydrate ligands on macrophages bind to selectin in blood vessel, move in blood vessel by rolling
- Phagocytic cells produce integrin on their membrane
- Stronger attachment occurs- immune cells are allowed to slow down and exit
- Phagocytic cells begin to move from the blood to the infected area in a process known as diapedisis
- Once in the interstitial fluid, phagocytic cells are attracted to the site of injury by chemotaxins- tell phagocytic cells exactly where to go
Climax of copulation
semen is propelled through the vasa deferentia and urethra in two steps
Protist
Uni or multicellular, contaminate lakes and drinking water to invade host
Anencephaly
failure of the neural tube to close at the anterior end and no forebrain develops
Extracellular destruction: complement
• Membrane Attack Complex (MAC)
– Embeds itself in the microbe membrane, forming pores
– Water and salt enter the microbe
Proteins released by liver to do the job: complement system
Functions of the Respiratory System
- Provides oxygen
- Eliminates carbon dioxide
- Regulates pH level- More co2 you get rid of the more hydrogen ions you get rid of
- Speech production
- Defense against foreign bodies- non specific immunity
Accessory pigments
Transfer energy absorbed to chorophylls
Carotenoids and phycobilins
Absorb intermediate between red and blue
Vacuoles
In plant and protist cells
Store waste products and toxic compounds; some may deter herbivores
Provides structure for plant cells, water enters by osmosis and creates turbot pressure
Stores anthocyanins(pigment) in flowers/fruit to attract pollinators
Digestive enzymes to hydrolyze stored food for early growth
Macromolecules crossing membranes
Too large to cross the membrane, so they can be taken in or secreted by membrane vesicles
Flagella
Come in ones and twos, longer than cilia
Systemic circulation
Delivers oxygenated blood from the heart to the body
long distance circuit
Cell junctions
Tight junctions, desmosomes, gap junctions
Second trimester
limbs elongate and facial features form
Chemoreceptors
Stimulate by chemicals, internal and external
Ingredients for photosynthesis
Co2 reduced to sugars that travel throughout the plant body
Water up taken by roots
Water and oxygen released
Two systems of electron transport
Non cyclic electron transport- produces NADPH and ATP
Cyclic electron transport- produces ATP only
- when you need more sugar you need more ATP than NADH, so cyclic transport is needed
Nucleoplasm
Surrounds the chromatin
Blood Vessels
- Form closed circuit tubes that carry blood from the heart to cells and back to the heart
- Arteries, arterioles (Tiny arteries, still can be seen by the naked eye) , capillaries, venules (merge to form veins), and veins
Antenna systems
Pigments arranged in these
Also called light harvesting complexes
Climax of copulation
semen is propelled through the vasa deferentia and urethra in two steps
Thylakoids
The way internal membranes are arranged in chloroplasts, thylakoids make stacks called grana
These membranes contain chlorophyll and other pigments
Paraventricular nucleus
Para ventricular nucleus makes mostly oxytocin. Oxytocin acts on smooth muscles of uterus and smooth muscles in mammary glands. Labor and lactation
Neutrophils
Most abundant phagocytic cells
Release:
Cytokines- alarming chemicals to alarm other immune cells
Vasodilators- increases size of blood cells, Make blood vessel bigger so immune cells can travel
Chemotaxins- chemo attractants, attract other immune cells, travel in blood vessels and squeeze out of them, can get anywhere in the body
Ions
Electrically charged particles, when atoms lose or gain electrons
G3P
Gylceraldehyde 3 phosphate
5/6 recycled into RuBP
1/6 converted to starch and sucrose to make glucose and fructose
When a photon meets a molecule it can be-
Scattered- photon bounces off the molecule
Transmitted- photon passed through the molecule
Absorbed- molecule squires the energy of the photon. Goes from ground state to excited state, and disappears and energy is absorbed
Tunica media
Made of smooth muscles
Mediate vasoconstriction and vasodilation (controls diameter of blood vessels)
Stoma
Mouth of plant
Co2 enters and O2/water exit through these pores
Major endocrine glands
Hypothalamus, pineal, pituitary, Thyroid,Parathyroid, Adrenal glands, Pancreas, Gonads
Chorionic villus sampling
tissue isremoved from the chorion after the eighth week
Protist
Uni or multicellular, contaminate lakes and drinking water to invade host
Functions of the Respiratory System
- Provides oxygen
- Eliminates carbon dioxide
- Regulates pH level- More co2 you get rid of the more hydrogen ions you get rid of
- Speech production
- Defense against foreign bodies- non specific immunity
Photophosphorylation
Light driven production of ATP
H+ transported via electron carriers across the thylakoid membrane from the stroma into the lumen, creating an electrochemical gradient
Motility
Digestive organs lined with smooth muscles that are involuntary and constantly contract, ensure motility (gravity has nothing to do with it) and also ensure mixing of the food
• Propulsive
– Movement of food at an appropriate speed
• Mixing of food
– To promote digestion and mixing with enzymes
– To facilitate absorption
Fertilization
Fertilization is the union of haploid sperm and haploid egg to produce a single diploid cell, the zygote
Duodenum
Receives:
Food from stomach
Important secretions from pancreas
Secretion from liver and gall bladder
Complete absorption will occur here
Hair cells at rest
There are stretch gated potassium channels separated by protein bridges
Voltage gated calcium channels
Neurotransmitters
Pili
Threadlike structures, help bacteria adhere to one another during mating or to other cells for food and protection
Some prokaryotes have these
Transmural pressure
The pressure difference between two membranes
Brain size
Average- 1350-1400g
Size does not matter! It’s the synapses that make the difference in functionality
Thickness of endometrium
About 5 days after ovulation it is at its maximal thickness and ready to accept
Highly proliferated and vasularized
How Are Gases Transported?
• Once in the blood, oxygen is transported in two ways
– 1.5% is dissolved in the plasma and cytosol of erythrocytes
– 98.5 % Bound to hemoglobin
Photosystem
Multiple antenna systems, surround reaction centers
Pigments packed together on thylakoids membrane proteins
Excitation energy passes from the pigments that absorb short wavelengths to those that absorb longer wavelengths, and ends up in the reaction center pigment
Vitamins
Small molecules not synthesized by the body, must be acquired in the diet
Nucleic acids
Polymers specialized for the storage, transmission, and use of genetic information
DNA: deoxyribonucleic acid (can convey info)
RNA: ribonucleic acid
Quaternary structure
Interaction of subunits by hydrophobic interactions, van der waals forces, ionic bonds, and hydrogen bonds
Each subunit has its own tertiary structure
How is polypeptide chain organized?
Like a sentence- “capital letter” is like the amino group of the first amino acid, and the “period” is like the carboxyl group of the last amino acid
Secondary structure
Alpha helix- right handed coil, resulting from hydrogen bonding, common in fibrous structural proteins
Beta pleated sheet- two or more polypeptide chains are aligned, hydrogen bonded
Genome
Complete set of DNA in a living organism
Two functions of DNA
Can reproduce itself (replication)
Can copy its information into RNA (transcription), RNA can specify a sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide (translation)
Phospholipids
Fatty acids bound to glycerol a phosphate group replaces one fatty acid
Phosphate group is hydrophilic “head”
“tails” are hydrophobic fatty acid chains
(ampipathic)
RNA bases
Uracil instead of thymine
Single stranded but complementary base pairing occurs in the structure of some types of RNA
Different amino acids
5 charged hydrophilic side chains
5 polar uncharged side chains
7 non polar hydrophobic side chains
Cysteine- has terminal sulfhydryl that allows for disulfide bonding
Glycine- H as R group
Proline- modified amino group, forms a ring with R group
Phosphodiester linkages
Bonds sugar and phosphate to form backbone of DNA and RNA
Like carbon 3 and carbon 5
Two strands of DNA run in opposite directions
DNA and evolution
DNA carries hereditary information between generations
Determining sequence of bases helps reveal evolutionary relationships
Closest living relatives of humans are chimps and bonobo
Glycosidic linkages
Monosaccharides bind together in these condensation reactions
Can be alpha or beta
Polymers
Formed by covalent linkages of smaller units called monomers
Glycogen
Storage of glucose in animals
Highly branched
Carbs can be modified by the addition of functional groups
Sugar phosphate (can make fructose biphosphate, intermediate compound in biochemical pathways) Amino sugars (glucosamine, major component of cartilage) Chitin ( insect and crustacean skeletons)
Types of lipids
Fats and oils- store energy
Phospholipids- structural role in cell membranes
Carotenoids and chlorophylls- capture light energy in plants
Steroids and modified fatty acids- hormones and vitamins
Animal fat- thermal insulation
Lipid coating around nerves- electrical insulation
Oil and wax on skin fur and feathers- repels water
Glycerol
3 OH groups (an alcohol)
Polysaccharides
Polymers of monosaccharides
Starch, glycogen, cellulose
Ester linkage
Carboxyl bind with hydroxyls of glycerol
Denaturation
Loss of a protein’s normal 3D structure
Saccharides
Simple sugars, monomers of carbohydrates
Di- 2
Oligo- 3-20
Poly- hundreds of thousands
Functional group
Groups of atoms with specific chemical properties and consistent behavior
Each macromolecule has at least one
Monosaccharides with different numbers of carbons
Hexoses: six carbons, has structural isomers (mannose, galactose, fructose)
Pentoses: five carbons (ribose has OH, deoxyribose is more stable, has H)
Alpha glucose
OH down, H up
Saturation of animal fats and plant oils
Animal fats: saturated
Plant oils: unsaturated
Phospholipid belayer
Hydrophobic tails line up and the hydrophilic heads face outward
Steroids
Multiple rings share carbons
Waxes
Highly nonpolar and impermeable to water
Ester linkage between saturated long chain fatty acid and a saturated long chain alcohol
Peptide linkage
Condensation reactions between amino group of one amino acid and the carboxyl group of another
Synthesizes proteins
Polypeptides
Another name for proteins (dipeptide, tripeptide, etc)
Primary structure of a protein
The sequence of amino acids
Determines secondary and tertiary structure, how the protein is folded
DNA replication
Depends on base pairing, as does transcription
Involves entire molecule only small sections of DNA are transcribed into RNA
Genes
Sequences of DNA that encode specific proteins
Double helix
Two strands of DNA molecule form this
All have this structure so diversity is in the sequence of base pairs, info encoded in this sequence
DNA bases
Adenine/guanine = purines
Cytocine/thymine = pyrimidines
A-T and C-G, bond by hydrogen bonding
Amino acids
Have carbonyl and amino groups with a hydrogen and an R group
function as an acid and base
R group make differences in amino acids
Saturated fatty acids
No double bonds between carbons, saturated with H+ atoms
Close packing of phospholipids into a monolayer, solid at room temperature
Nucleotides
Monomers of nucleic acid
Pentoses sugar, phosphate group, nitrogen containing base
(without phosphate group called nucleosides)
Macromolecules
Giant polymers, molecular weight usually greater than 1000 daltons
All form through condensation reactions where water is removed during bond formation
Oligosaccharides
May include other functional groups
Covalently bonded to proteins and lipids on cell surfaces and act as recognition signals
Human blood groups get specificity from oligosaccharide chains
Starch
Storage of glucose in plants
Branched
Cellulose
Very stable, good for structural components
Linear
Lipids
Non polar hydrocarbons
Van der waals forces- not polymers in strict sense because they are not covalently bonded
Triglycerides
Simple lipids composed of fatty acids and glycerol (ex:fats and oils)
Fatty acid
Non polar hydrocarbon with a polar carboxyl group
Ampipathic- opposing chemical properties, when carboxyl group ionizes it forms COO- and H+ and is hydrophilic while the other end is hydrophobic
Other roles for nucleotides
ATP- energy transducer in biochemical reactions
GTP- energy source in protein synthesis
cAMP- essential to the action of hormones and transmission of information in the nervous system
Carbohydrates
Have carbon and water
Source and transport of stored energy
Carbon skeletons for many other molecules
Glucose
Monosaccharide
All cells use it as an energy source
Exists most often in a ring as alpha or beta glucose depending on position of the aldehyde group (can also be found in a chain)
Proteins
Polymers of amino acids, each has different AA composition and order
Folding is crucial to the function of a protein, influenced by the AA sequence
Beta glucose
OH up, H down
Unsaturated fatty acids
Some double bonds in carbon chain
Double bonds prevent tight packing, lipid monlayer more fluid, liquid at room temperature
Monounsaturated: one double bond
Polyunsaturated: more than one
Tertiary structure
Many bonds: Covalent disulfide bridges Hydrophobic side chain interactions Van der waals forces Ionic bonds Hydrogen bonds
Carotenoids
Light-absorbing pigments
Source of vitamin A
Non polar covalent bond
Share electrons equally
Covalent bonds
Atoms share one or more electrons so that the outer shells are filled
Ions
Electrically charged particles, when atoms lose or gain electrons
Salts
Ionically bonded compounds
Densities of H2O at various states
Water>ice>vapor
Chemical bond
Attractive force that links atoms together to form molecules
All chemical bonds involve changes in the relationships of electrons one with the other
Electronegativity
Depends on number of + charges in the nucleus and the distances of the electron from the nucleus
Ionic bonds
Formed by the electrical attraction of positive and negative ions
What properties of water make it so important in biology?
Polar molecule
Forms hydrogen bonds
Has tetrahedral shape
How do atoms bond to form molecules
Reactive atoms have unpaired electrons in their outermost shell, atoms share, gain, or lose electrons
How does electronegativity determine the structure of water?
O is more electronegative than H, so the O has a more negative charge
Anions
Negative
Base
Releases hydroxide ions, accept H+, ph greater than 7
Polar covalent bond
One atom has more electronegativity
Cations
Positive
Acid
Releases hydrogen ions through ionization, ph less than 7
