Ls2 Flashcards
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Plasma membrane
Outer surface of every cell, more or less same structure in every cell
Phospholipid bilayer with proteins and other molecules imbedded
Oily fluid in which proteins and lipids are in constant motion
Immunization
Series of shots
MMR- immunization shot against meals, mumps, rubella
Small quantity of pathogens to build immune response, memory cells to speed up recovery next time
B lymphocytes
Transform into plasma cells and release antibodies into the circulation, which are proteins that tag the pathogens to signal the immune cells to destroy it
Form memory cells- every pathogen has specific surface receptors (signature), they can remember for next time how to fight the infection
Parts of the respiratory system
Nasal/oral cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, primary/secondary/tertiary bronchus, bronchioles (if you don’t need a lot of oxygen bronchioles are slightly constricted), alveoli (site of exchange)
All made of cartilage up to the trachea
trophoblast
- In mammals, the first extraembryonic membrane to form is the trophoblast.
- When the blastocyst hatches from the zona pellucida, the trophoblast cells attach to the uterine wall, This is the beginning of implantation.
- The trophoblast becomes part of the uterine wall, and sends out villi to increase surface area and contact with maternal blood.
Capillaries
Smallest diameter blood vessels
Made of endothelial layer only (tunica intima)
Have slits- Slits facilitate movement and exhange of materials between cells
They are the site of exchange with cells
Lowest velocity, delivering nutrients at slow speed
placenta
organ of exchange of nutrients and waste products between the embryo’s and the mother’s blood
Antenna systems
Pigments arranged in these
Also called light harvesting complexes
Glycoproteins
Carbohydrate and protein
Control of breathing
Voluntary until it becomes physiologically dangerous, your brain will force you to breathe.
• Inspiration is initiated by stimulating the respiratory muscles
– Diaphragm and external intercostals
• The stimulation is initiated in the medullary centers and the pons
Medulla oblongata sends signal to spinal cord, phrenic nerve sends action potential to diaphragm. 100% controlled by brain unless you voluntarily change it, stimulation always occurring. Neurons called central patter generator, send action potentials then they stop, perfectly synced on/off mechanism
Glyoxisomes
Structurally similar organelles found in plants that convert lipids to carbs (fats to sugars)
Chemoreceptors
Homeostatic mechanism: Chemoreceptors constantly measuring level of oxygen and co2, send signal through sensory nerve fibers
Need increased inspiration during exercise, or if holding breath (decrease oxygen availability and increase co2 availability)
• Peripheral
– Carotid bodies
– Aortic bodies
• Central- within nervous system, medulla oblongata
How do gases cross the lung/bloodmedia?
Process of diffusion.
Alveoli made of single layered cells, blood capillaries only have tunica intima and some connective tissue, so very thin, and easy process of diffusion
Both the capillaries and the alveoli are lined with simple squamous epithelium
Action spectrum
Plot of biological activity as a function of exposure to varied wavelengths of light
Barriers to infection
Physical barriers
Chemical barriers
Reflexes
Brocca’s aphasia
Can understand but cannot speak
Light reactions
Convert light energy to chemical energy as ATP and NADH
Physical barriers
Skin- brick layers of cells, most pathogens can’t get through it, also produces a hard and fibrous protein called keratin. The closest layer to the surface has the highest amount of keratin- the outermost layer of skin is dead, it produced too much keratin to function
Fibrous layer of the eyes
Mucous membrane of the respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive systems, and ear- thick membrane that prevents pathogens from getting into the circulation
Cilia
Inspiration
Diaphragm- Lungs physically sit on diaphragm, main muscle for respiration, pushes down during inspiration
External intercostal muscles- contact and push down
Neutrophils
Most abundant phagocytic cells
Release:
Cytokines- alarming chemicals to alarm other immune cells
Vasodilators- increases size of blood cells, Make blood vessel bigger so immune cells can travel
Chemotaxins- chemo attractants, attract other immune cells, travel in blood vessels and squeeze out of them, can get anywhere in the body
Right and left ventricle
pumping chambers, physically contracting to make the blood exit (simultaneously in both circuits)
Thermoreceptors
Skin/organs, measure temperature
Photophosphorylation
Light driven production of ATP
H+ transported via electron carriers across the thylakoid membrane from the stroma into the lumen, creating an electrochemical gradient
Light
A form of electromagnetic radiation
Propagated as waves, energy of light is inversely proportional to wavelength (must be appropriate wavelength to be absorbed by receptive molecules
Light also behaves as particles called photons, plants absorb these
Nucleoplasm
Surrounds the chromatin
Functions of the Respiratory System
- Provides oxygen
- Eliminates carbon dioxide
- Regulates pH level- More co2 you get rid of the more hydrogen ions you get rid of
- Speech production
- Defense against foreign bodies- non specific immunity
Dunedin
Microtubules cross linked by the spokes of this motor protein
Changes shape when energy is released from ATP, move vesicles toward minus end
Carbs can be modified by the addition of functional groups
Sugar phosphate (can make fructose biphosphate, intermediate compound in biochemical pathways) Amino sugars (glucosamine, major component of cartilage) Chitin ( insect and crustacean skeletons)
Limit of resolution for light microscopy
.61 x .4u / 1.4 = .17u
Oogenesis steps
Female germ cell (2n)
Mitosis
Oogonium (2n)
Mitosis
Primary oocyte (2n)
First meiotic division
Secondary oocyte (n) and first polar body
Second meiotic division, independent assortment of chromosomes
Ootid (n) and second polar body
Ovum (egg) (n), polar bodies degrade
Pacemaker activities
Sinoatrial node has ability to generate its own action potentials, which spread to atrioventricular node, then uncle of his, the bundle branches, then to purkinje fibers, spread from one pacemaker area to another, causes cardiac tissues to contract.
Pacemaker cells (1% of heart), make sure electrical signals are occurring and trigger release of calcium needed to contract muscles
Heart contracts in waves as the electrical activity spreads. Atrium contract first and ventricles second, gives ventricles time to relax in the slight delay
Peripheral membrane proteins
Lack exposed hydrophobic groups, do not penetrate bilayer (stay inside)
Virus
Cause major problems by taking over/infecting cells
Phosphodiester linkages
Bonds sugar and phosphate to form backbone of DNA and RNA
Like carbon 3 and carbon 5
Two strands of DNA run in opposite directions
Velocity of the action potential
Myelin speeds up the spreading of the action potential
Also insulates
Pulmonary circulation
Short distance circuit
Delivers deoxygenated (blood never has absolutely no oxygen) blood from the heart to the lungs
Mitochondria
Converts potential energy of fuel molecules into form that cell can use (ATP)
Outer lipid bilayer and highly folded inner membrane
Nonspecific immunity
Prevention
Attack- if it gets in the circulatory system
Different contributions to the zygote:
- Sperm: DNA and a centriole, in somespecies.
* Egg: DNA, organelles, nutrients, transcription factors, mRNAs.
Barriers to infection
Physical barriers
Chemical barriers
Reflexes
Steroids
Multiple rings share carbons
Chorionic villus sampling
tissue isremoved from the chorion after the eighth week
Receptor mediated endocytosis
Deeds on receptor proteins (integral membrane proteins) to bind to specific substances
Sites called coated pits, coated with other proteins such as clathrin
Twinning
- If blastomeres separate into two groups, each can produce an embryo.
- Monozygotic twins come from the same zygote and are identical.
- Nonidentical twins are from two eggs fertilized by two sperm.
Parietal lobe
Feeling sensation
Somatosensory cortex- conscious awareness of general somatic senses, precisely locate the stimulus received (spatial discrimination)
Wernicke’s area- overlaps in temporal lobe, speech comprehension
Sensory homunculus
Lymphoid tissues
Adenoids, tonsils, thymus, lymph noes, spleen, bone marrow, lymphatic vessels
Immune cells originate here, majorly from bone marrow
immune cells are scattered all over, but they are clustered in certain areas in case of infection
Functions of the extracellular matrix
Holds cells together in tissues
Contributes to physical properties of tissue
Helps filter material passing between tissues
Helps orient cell movement
Role in chemical signaling
Blastomere
- Blastomeres become determined, or committed toa specific fate, at different times in different animals.
- Roundworm and clam blastomeres are already determined at the 8-cell stage.
- If one cell is removed, a portion of the embryo fails to develop normally. This is called mosaic development.
- Humans have regulative development. If some cells are lost during cleavage, other cells can compensate. For genetic testing in humans, one cell can be removed from a blastula following in vitro fertilization. If there are no mutations in the gene of interest, that blastula can be implanted
Sharp object penetrating skin
Easiest way to get infected by a pathogen
Some cells are already in the vicinity, they destroy and then call for back up
Parts of the respiratory system
Nasal/oral cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, primary/secondary/tertiary bronchus, bronchioles (if you don’t need a lot of oxygen bronchioles are slightly constricted), alveoli (site of exchange)
All made of cartilage up to the trachea
Neurohypophysis
Posterior pituitary gland, Made of neurons, can also be called neural hypophysis
Cell bodies of neurons house in hypothalamus and only part of the axon and axon terminals are located in the posterior pituitary, hormones made of peptides synthesized in hypothalamus, are made in cells and stored in axon terminals
• Paraventricular nucleus and the supraoptic nucleus of the hypothalamussynthesize hormones that are stored in the terminals for later release
– Oxytocin
– Vasopressin (antidiuretic to prevent water loss and a vasoconstrictor)
Cell membranes and the extracellular matrix
Cell membranes adhere to the extracellular matrix
Tans,embrace protein integrity binds to the matrix outside epithelial cells and to actin filaments inside the cells, noncovalent and reversible binding
Secondary lysosome
Phagosomes fuse with primary lysosomes to form secondary lysosomes
Enzymes hydrolyze the food molecules
Phospholipids
Fatty acids bound to glycerol a phosphate group replaces one fatty acid
Phosphate group is hydrophilic “head”
“tails” are hydrophobic fatty acid chains
(ampipathic)
Ion channels
Specific channel proteins with hydrophilic pores
Electrocardiogram
Recording the electrical activities of the heart
3 sets of electrodes on two wrists, one on ankle, surface electrodes on skin pick up electrical activities from the heart, electrical activity comes from action potentials
Extracellular recording- recording sum of action potential and a high response is expected, but you get one kilovolt because of how far your surface skin is from your heart
The second law in relation to complex organisms
Metabolic process that take place in living tissues produce more disorr than order
Construction of 1kg of our body mass requires catabolism of 10kg of biological material
To maintain order, life needs constant input of energy
Steroids
Multiple rings share carbons
Immunization
Series of shots
MMR- immunization shot against meals, mumps, rubella
Small quantity of pathogens to build immune response, memory cells to speed up recovery next time
The three fundamental steps of sexual reproduction are:
– Gametogenesis (producing sperm and eggs, requires meiosis)
– Mating (getting sperm and egg together)
– Fertilization (fusion of sperm and egg)
- Gametogenesis and fertilization are fairly similar in different groups of animals.
- Mating behaviors, however, show incredible diversity.
Different amino acids
5 charged hydrophilic side chains
5 polar uncharged side chains
7 non polar hydrophobic side chains
Cysteine- has terminal sulfhydryl that allows for disulfide bonding
Glycine- H as R group
Proline- modified amino group, forms a ring with R group
Ions
Electrically charged particles, when atoms lose or gain electrons
DNA and evolution
DNA carries hereditary information between generations
Determining sequence of bases helps reveal evolutionary relationships
Closest living relatives of humans are chimps and bonobo
Phagocytic cell migration
- The cytokines released by macrophages signal the endothelial cells to express selectin
- Margination occurs- dock and fuse with membrane, carbohydrate ligands on macrophages bind to selectin in blood vessel, move in blood vessel by rolling
- Phagocytic cells produce integrin on their membrane
- Stronger attachment occurs- immune cells are allowed to slow down and exit
- Phagocytic cells begin to move from the blood to the infected area in a process known as diapedisis
- Once in the interstitial fluid, phagocytic cells are attracted to the site of injury by chemotaxins- tell phagocytic cells exactly where to go
Rough ER
Has ribosomes attached
Physical barriers
Skin- brick layers of cells, most pathogens can’t get through it, also produces a hard and fibrous protein called keratin. The closest layer to the surface has the highest amount of keratin- the outermost layer of skin is dead, it produced too much keratin to function
Fibrous layer of the eyes
Mucous membrane of the respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive systems, and ear- thick membrane that prevents pathogens from getting into the circulation
Cilia
Alveolar type II cells
Secrete surfactant which keeps the alveoli from collapsing
Electron microscope
Use electromagnets to focus an electron beam, wavelength is much shorter than light so much higher resolution .5 nm
Somites
separate, segmented blocks of cells on either side of the neural tube.
Muscle, cartilage, bone, and lower layer of the skin form from somites.
Neural crest cells are guided by somites to develop into peripheral nerves and other structures
Chemical barriers
Sebum- oily acidic substance released from sebaceous glands
Lacrimal glands- tears protect sclera and cornea, dripping through nasal cavity, washing of the eye
Lysozymes- degrading/digestive enzymes secreted from the mucous membranes
Defensins- peptides secreted from the mucous membranes
Ear wax- things get stuck
Sweat- cools body and at same time destroys microorganisms on skin, B.O. Is the degradation of bacteria on skin
Macrophages- immune cells
Stomach acid- HCl, damaging
Saliva
AP Step 4
Sodium ions flowing in further depolarize the membrane, VGPG are still closed
Explosive depolarization; potential reaches 0mV
Bone marrow
Produces mulitpotent hematopoietic cell, which in return can be a myeloid or a lymphoid progenitor cel
Stem cells- have not differentiated yet, blood stem cells can become blood cells
Two systems of electron transport
Non cyclic electron transport- produces NADPH and ATP
Cyclic electron transport- produces ATP only
- when you need more sugar you need more ATP than NADH, so cyclic transport is needed
Neutrophils
Most abundant phagocytic cells
Release:
Cytokines- alarming chemicals to alarm other immune cells
Vasodilators- increases size of blood cells, Make blood vessel bigger so immune cells can travel
Chemotaxins- chemo attractants, attract other immune cells, travel in blood vessels and squeeze out of them, can get anywhere in the body
Cytotoxic T Cell
Release perform and granzymes
Induce apoptosis (Fas)
Attack cancer cells which stop mitosis regulation and keep dividing- they bond to these and release perforins that poke h ones in the membrane, eater can go in, releases granzymes in the hole or proteins that activate apoptosis
The liver
• Hepatocytes of the liver release bile salts that functions in fat emulsification, hydrophobic lipids aggregate together, lipase cannot do its function without bile to emulsify the fat
– The break down of large fat droplets into smaller ones
• Bile salts are stored in the gall bladder
How does the endocrine system work in general?
Hormones not released over a short distance like neurotransmitters in nervous system- instead circulate throughout the body, gland releases hormones in the circulation, every cell will be exposed to it because it is traveling in the blood
Only certain cells respond to the hormones because they are very specific, only very few have universal effects on every cell, when hormone finds a matching receptor protein it becomes functional and can do the function- cell with this receptor called a target cell
Digestion: Polymers Vs Monomers
Body only cares about three major molecules, you are consuming them in the polymer, want to break down into individual units that we can absorb
- Proteins are broken down to amino acids
- Carbohydrates are broken down to glucose, fructose, galactose
- Lipids are broken down to fatty acids
Mechanoreceptors and sound
Sound converted to electrical activity, then temporal lobe interprets
Sound is vibration of air molecules
Waves of vibration can have high amplitude(loudness) or high frequency(pitch)
Limit of resolution for light microscopy
.61 x .4u / 1.4 = .17u
Nonspecific Immune response/inflammation
• Occurs through cut or injury to the skin
• Sequence of events ensue to protect the body against infection
– Phagocytosis and recruitment
– Vasodilation and increase in permeability
– Phagocytic cells migration
– Tissue repair
Lungs and the mechanisms of the chest
Easy, effortless to breath because of the mechanics of the lungs- always slightly inflated to make inspiration easier
Lungs attached to chest wall and inner layer of your rib cage by very thin set of membranes called a pleural sac
Ribs protect your lungs and work in synchrony with them, chest expands and increase in volume along with your lungs
Gestation
pregnancy
in humans is about 266 days and is divided into trimesters
Nonspecific Immune response/inflammation
• Occurs through cut or injury to the skin
• Sequence of events ensue to protect the body against infection
– Phagocytosis and recruitment
– Vasodilation and increase in permeability
– Phagocytic cells migration
– Tissue repair
Chromatin
Diffuse or long thin fibers in which DNA is bound to proteins
Prior to cell division these condense and form chromosomes
Gestation
pregnancy
in humans is about 266 days and is divided into trimesters
Microtubules
Hollow cylinders made from tubulin protein subunits
Provid rigid intracellular skeleton for some cells, function as tracks for motor proteins
Form and disassemble as the needs of the cell change
Form cilia and flagella
Nucleic acids
Polymers specialized for the storage, transmission, and use of genetic information
DNA: deoxyribonucleic acid (can convey info)
RNA: ribonucleic acid
Membranes with carbohydrates
Have carbohydrates on outer surface that serve as recognition sites for other cells and molecules
Different contributions to the zygote:
- Sperm: DNA and a centriole, in somespecies.
* Egg: DNA, organelles, nutrients, transcription factors, mRNAs.
How does myelin speed up the action potential
Voltage gated channels found in nodes of ranvier
Saltatory conductance
Membrane is thick where there is myelin, so no permeability, and VGC can only work at nodes
Spermatogenesis
Male germ cell (2n)
Mitosis
Spermatogonium (2n)
Mitosis (first DNA synthesis-Chromosomes don’t separate, cross over- DNA from two pairs get scrambled)
Primary spermatocyte (2n)
first meiotic division (no DNA synthesis)
Secondary spermatocytes (1n)
Secondary meiotic division, independent assortment of chromosomes
Spermatids (1n)
Differentiation and maturation
Sperm cells (1n)
Inferior vena cava
Brings deoxygenated blood from all structures below diaphragm
Rubisco
Enzyme that catalyzes fixation of CO2
Ribosome bisphosphate carboxylase/
Most abundant protein in the world, 50% of the protein in a leaf
AP Step 3
Sodium ions flow through the VGSC causing membrane to become depolarized and the action potential begins
Somites
separate, segmented blocks of cells on either side of the neural tube.
Muscle, cartilage, bone, and lower layer of the skin form from somites.
Neural crest cells are guided by somites to develop into peripheral nerves and other structures
Effectors
Respond to restore the deviation from the setvalues of the internal environment
Following the commands of the control center to make a change and restore the environment
Where are these microorganisms?
They like moisture, food particles, want to get in blood vessels (from there they can travel all over the body)
The female reproductive cycle actually consists of two linked cycles:
an ovarian cycle that produces eggs and hormones and a uterine cycle that prepares the endometrium for the arrival of a blastocyst
Light reactions
Convert light energy to chemical energy as ATP and NADH
Inner cell mass
• The inner cell mass of the blastocyst splits into an epiblast and hypoblast with a fluid-filled cavity in
between (just like the reptilian and avian gastrula).
- The embryo forms from the epiblast.
- The epiblast also splits off a layer of cells that form the amnion. The amnion grows around the developing embryo.
- The hypoblast cells extend to form the chorion. Thechorion and other tissues produce the placenta.
- The epiblast produces the amnion. Allantoic tissues form the umbilical cord.
Complement system
Pore formation: First complement protein (inactive), cascade of protein activation in bacterial cell
Swelling: fluid rushes into cells
Lysis
Chlorophylls a and b
Ring structure with magnesium atom in center
Hydrocarbon tail which anchors them to integral proteins in the thylakoids membrane
Absorb in red and blue region
Chemical barriers
Sebum- oily acidic substance released from sebaceous glands
Lacrimal glands- tears protect sclera and cornea, dripping through nasal cavity, washing of the eye
Lysozymes- degrading/digestive enzymes secreted from the mucous membranes
Defensins- peptides secreted from the mucous membranes
Ear wax- things get stuck
Sweat- cools body and at same time destroys microorganisms on skin, B.O. Is the degradation of bacteria on skin
Macrophages- immune cells
Stomach acid- HCl, damaging
Saliva
Function of Cortisol
- Increases the fuel availability to the brain
- Gluconeogenesis- Synthesis of glucose, started to make glucose from amino acids which is bad because you’re breaking down your proteins which you need for muscles, enzymes, micro tubules, etc. but cortisol breaks it down to make glucose with causes negative effect
- Lypolytic hormone- Breaks down fats to make sure fatty acids are available for the brain. Can end up localizing fat
- Anti-inflammatory effects- Someone’s immune system, histamine is released as an alert for immune system but that starts to decrease with cortisol (immunosuppressive)
- Affects memory function- Permanent brain damage, kills neurons permanently
- proteolytic hormone- promotes protein breakdown, prevents growth, birth of premature babies
Virus
Cause major problems by taking over/infecting cells
Sensory cells
Sense/receive info
Transduce physical or chemical stimuli into action potentials
Receptor cells
Modified neurons
Generate electrical activity but do not look like neurons
When a photon meets a molecule it can be-
Scattered- photon bounces off the molecule
Transmitted- photon passed through the molecule
Absorbed- molecule squires the energy of the photon. Goes from ground state to excited state, and disappears and energy is absorbed
Texture of phospholipid bilayer
Flexible, the interior is fluid and allows lateral movement of molecules
Fluidity depends on temperature and composition
Region with cholesterol is stiffened
Neuromuscular junction
Synapse between muscle and a neuron
Acetylcholine is the neurotransmitter
Tunica interna
Made of simple squamous epithelium (endothelium)
Provide smooth surface for blood to pass through
Primary lysosomes
Originate from Golgi apparatus
Contain digestive enzymes- macromolecules are hydrolyzed into monomers
Control center
Evaluates the information from receptors
Set point (tells what a particular value should be)
Set point is a constant level, the control center compares information from receptor to this, control center initiates the changes and makes a decision
Bacteria
Unicellular prokaryotes
Smooth ER
Ribosome free region
Light microscopes
Glass lenses focus visible light, max resolution of .2 um
Pressure change
Breathing associated with skeletal muscles that are constantly contracting and relaxing, gases are quantified by pressur
Atmospheric pressure (Patm)- pressure on the outside in the environment
Alveolar pressure (Palv)-pressure inside your lungs
Intrapleural pressure (Pip)- pressure in pleural sac, fills up with fluid that exerts pressure
Alveolar and interpleural pressure are constantly fluctuating because they depend on your state
Motility
Digestive organs lined with smooth muscles that are involuntary and constantly contract, ensure motility (gravity has nothing to do with it) and also ensure mixing of the food
• Propulsive
– Movement of food at an appropriate speed
• Mixing of food
– To promote digestion and mixing with enzymes
– To facilitate absorption
Phagocytosis
Attatchment (opsonization)- Physically bind to pathogen
Internalization, turns into phagosome
Degradation- Fuses with lysosome and becomes phagolysosome, and after the digestive enzymes can be reused
Exocytosis- elimination of debris
Eukaryotes
Membrane enclosed nucleus as well as other membrane enclosed compartments
Animals, plants, fungi, protists
Contains organelles, membrane enclosed nucleus
Protein scaffolding called cytoskeleton
Sperm anatomy
Acrosome- tip
Nucleus
Midpiece- contains mitochondria, Mitochondrial DNA from mother. When sperm goes into egg loses mitochondria
Tail- flagellum made of microtubules
Light
A form of electromagnetic radiation
Propagated as waves, energy of light is inversely proportional to wavelength (must be appropriate wavelength to be absorbed by receptive molecules
Light also behaves as particles called photons, plants absorb these
Boyle’s law
Pressure and volume are inversely proportiona
Gases in a container, when volume decreased, pressure increases due to collision of gas molecules and now these gas molecules are confined to a smaller place, so more bombardment
Lungs are always changing in volume so the pressure changes as well with inspiration and expiration
Neural mechanism
Neurons stimulate glands to release hormones
Tiny gland that sits on top of kidneys called adrenal gland- Inner layer called adrenal medulla, releases hormone called epinephrine, which helps you deal with stress, part of sympathetic nervous system, increases heart rate etc
Functions of the Respiratory System
- Provides oxygen
- Eliminates carbon dioxide
- Regulates pH level- More co2 you get rid of the more hydrogen ions you get rid of
- Speech production
- Defense against foreign bodies- non specific immunity
Kinesin
Motor protein, moves toward plus end
Gas transport through membranes
Oxygen has to cross alveoli and membrane of the capillaries to get into the plasma, and then another membrane to get inside the red blood cells
Loading phase- hemoglobin picks up oxygen
Unloading phase- release oxygen into your tissues to use, takes into mitochondria to produce ATP
Plasma
• Contain proteins that exert osmoticpressure
• Many types:
– Albumins: transport proteins
– Globulins: immune function
– Fibrinogen: clotting function
• Minerals and electrolytes
Calvin cycle stimulated by light
Protons pumped form stroma into thylakoids, increasing the pH which favors the activation of rubisco
Electron flow from photosystem one reduces disulfide bonds to activate calvin cycle enzymes
Glucose
Monosaccharide
All cells use it as an energy source
Exists most often in a ring as alpha or beta glucose depending on position of the aldehyde group (can also be found in a chain)
Arrangement of microtubules in flagella and cilia
9+2 array- 9 pairs and 2 individual microtubules in center
At the base of flagella and cilia is the nasal body, the 9 rings extend there
Calvin cycle stimulated by light
Protons pumped form stroma into thylakoids, increasing the pH which favors the activation of rubisco
Electron flow from photosystem one reduces disulfide bonds to activate calvin cycle enzymes
Primary structure of a protein
The sequence of amino acids
Determines secondary and tertiary structure, how the protein is folded
Proteins
Polymers of amino acids, each has different AA composition and order
Folding is crucial to the function of a protein, influenced by the AA sequence
Carrier proteins
Membrane proteins that bind some substances and speed their diffusion through the bilayer
Polar molecules such a glucose- glucose binds to protein which causes it to change shape and release glucose on the other side, but as transporters become saturated, the rate of diffusion into the cells slows down
Lungs and the mechanisms of the chest
Easy, effortless to breath because of the mechanics of the lungs- always slightly inflated to make inspiration easier
Lungs attached to chest wall and inner layer of your rib cage by very thin set of membranes called a pleural sac
Ribs protect your lungs and work in synchrony with them, chest expands and increase in volume along with your lungs
Stomach lumen
Inner layer of stomach, in contact with food
Rugae- Folds that increase surface areas to increase the rate of diffusion
Mucosa is outer layer that contains gastric pits, submucosa layer underneath
Best fit
Conformational state that provides the best fit binds to substrate
placenta
organ of exchange of nutrients and waste products between the embryo’s and the mother’s blood
Phagocytosis
Food molecules enter the cell through a formed phagosome
Steps of fertilization
– The sperm and egg recognize each other.
– The sperm is activated so that it can gain access to the plasma membrane of the egg.
– The plasma membranes of the sperm and egg fuse.
– The egg blocks entry of additional sperm.
– The egg is stimulated to start development.
– The egg and sperm nuclei fuse
Absorption spectrum
Plot of wavelengths absorbed by a pigment
Cleavage
a rapid series of celldivision, but no cell growth
In mammals cleavage is rotational:
First cell division is parallel to the animal–vegetal axis; yields two blastomeres.
In second division two blastomeres divide at right angles to each other;one is parallel to the axis and the other is perpendicular to it. This pattern of division is unique to mammals with placentas.
Branching of the airways
Conducting zone: trachea, primary bronchi, secondary bronchi, tertiary bronchi, bronchioles
Respiratory zone: respiratory bronchioles, alveoli (each alveolus is covered with many capillaries to facilitate the exchange of materials)
Energy transfer and electron transport
Light energy absorbed by antenna chlorophylls, and passed on to reaction center
Molecule goes to excited state
Energized electron from chlorophyll molecules passed to electron acceptor to reduce it
Lymphoid progenitor cells
Form into B lymphocytes, T lymphocytes
Fertilization
Fertilization is the union of haploid sperm and haploid egg to produce a single diploid cell, the zygote
Amino Acids Absorption
- Absorbed by secondary active transportsimilar to carbohydrates absorption
- Taken to the blood via carrier proteins
Branching of the airways
Conducting zone: trachea, primary bronchi, secondary bronchi, tertiary bronchi, bronchioles
Respiratory zone: respiratory bronchioles, alveoli (each alveolus is covered with many capillaries to facilitate the exchange of materials)
Inspiration
Diaphragm- Lungs physically sit on diaphragm, main muscle for respiration, pushes down during inspiration
External intercostal muscles- contact and push down
Cyclic electron transport
Electron from excited P700 chlorophyll molecule n photosystem one cycles back to the same chlorophyll molecule
Involves a series of exergonic redox reactions, the released energy creates a proton gradient that is used to synthesize ATP
Mechanisms of Valve Action
Shaped to prevent the back flow of blood
Different contributions to the zygote:
- Sperm: DNA and a centriole, in somespecies.
* Egg: DNA, organelles, nutrients, transcription factors, mRNAs.
G3P
Gylceraldehyde 3 phosphate
5/6 recycled into RuBP
1/6 converted to starch and sucrose to make glucose and fructose
Chlorophylls a and b
Ring structure with magnesium atom in center
Hydrocarbon tail which anchors them to integral proteins in the thylakoids membrane
Absorb in red and blue region
SS
Somatostatin
Inhibits release of GH
Cell theory
Cells are the fundamental units of life
All organisms are composed of cells
All cells come from preexisting cells
Antenna systems
Pigments arranged in these
Also called light harvesting complexes
How Are Gases Transported?
• Once in the blood, oxygen is transported in two ways
– 1.5% is dissolved in the plasma and cytosol of erythrocytes
– 98.5 % Bound to hemoglobin
When a pigment molecule absorbs a photon (excited state) the energy can be-
Released as heat and/or light
Transferred to another molecule
Used for a chemical reaction
Rubisco
Enzyme that catalyzes fixation of CO2
Ribosome bisphosphate carboxylase/
Most abundant protein in the world, 50% of the protein in a leaf
Photosystem 2
Light energy oxidizes water to oxygen, H+, and electrons
Reaction center has chlorophyll a molecules: P680 absorbs at 680 nm (more energetic than P700)
Excited first
Muscles of Expiration
• Passive expiration
– Elastic recoil of the lungs
• Active expiration
– Contraction of internal intercostals
– Contraction of abdominal muscles (causesdiaphragm to be pushed up)
seminiferous tubules
- Spermatogenesis takes place in the seminiferous tubules of the testis.
- Each tubule is lined with a stratified epithelium, within which spermatogoniareside and mature into sperm cells
Production of sperm is temperature dependent- if cold scrotum will cuddle against body
Stem cells can divide and divide and divide make sperm
Photo system 1
Light energy reduces NADP+ to NADPH
Reaction center has chlorophyll a molecules: P700 absorbs in the 700nm range
Calvin cycle stimulated by light
Protons pumped form stroma into thylakoids, increasing the pH which favors the activation of rubisco
Electron flow from photosystem one reduces disulfide bonds to activate calvin cycle enzymes
Ribosomes
Sites of protein synthesis
found free in cytoplasm, in mitochondria, bound to the endoplasmic reticulum, and in chloroplasts
Consist of ribosomal RNA and more than 50 other proteins
Muscles of Expiration
• Passive expiration
– Elastic recoil of the lungs
• Active expiration
– Contraction of internal intercostals
– Contraction of abdominal muscles (causesdiaphragm to be pushed up)
How does the endocrine system work in general?
Hormones not released over a short distance like neurotransmitters in nervous system- instead circulate throughout the body, gland releases hormones in the circulation, every cell will be exposed to it because it is traveling in the blood
Only certain cells respond to the hormones because they are very specific, only very few have universal effects on every cell, when hormone finds a matching receptor protein it becomes functional and can do the function- cell with this receptor called a target cell
How does electronegativity determine the structure of water?
O is more electronegative than H, so the O has a more negative charge
Virus
Cause major problems by taking over/infecting cells
Radioisotopes after world war II
Became readily available to cell biologists to study cell metabolism
Ex: tritium(3H) emits beta particle when one extra neutron changes into a proton
Autoradiography- radioisotopes can trace the fate of molecules in cells
Cerebellum
Another area of motor control
Maintainance of balance
Coordination and planning of skilled voluntary muscle activity
Ipsilateral- controls right side of body
Pigments
Molecules that absorb specific wavelengths in the visible range of the spectrum
Photons can have a wide range of wavelengths and energy levels
Control of breathing
Voluntary until it becomes physiologically dangerous, your brain will force you to breathe.
• Inspiration is initiated by stimulating the respiratory muscles
– Diaphragm and external intercostals
• The stimulation is initiated in the medullary centers and the pons
Medulla oblongata sends signal to spinal cord, phrenic nerve sends action potential to diaphragm. 100% controlled by brain unless you voluntarily change it, stimulation always occurring. Neurons called central patter generator, send action potentials then they stop, perfectly synced on/off mechanism
Muscle contraction
AP in axon terminals leads to NT release
EPP leads to AP
AP causes Ca2+ release
Ca2+ binds to troponin
Myosin binds to actin when there is Ca2+
Alveolar type I cells
form the wall of the alveoli
Components of the cytoskeleton
Microfilaments
Intermediate filaments
Microtubules
Nonspecific Immune response/inflammation
• Occurs through cut or injury to the skin
• Sequence of events ensue to protect the body against infection
– Phagocytosis and recruitment
– Vasodilation and increase in permeability
– Phagocytic cells migration
– Tissue repair
Processes in Calvin Benson cycle
Fixation of CO2 by combination with RuBP (catalyzes by rubisco)
Conversion of fixed CO2 into carbohydrate G3P (using ATP and NADPH)
Regeneration of CO2 acceptor RuBP by ATP
Gestation
pregnancy
in humans is about 266 days and is divided into trimesters
Z scheme
Model of noncyclic electron transport
Extracts electrons from water and transfers them to NADPH, using energy from photosynthesis one and two and resulting in ATP synthesis
Yields ATP, NADPH, and O2
Path of sperm
- To achieve fertilization, sperm swim up the vagina, assisted by contractions of the female reproductive tract.
- The sperm then pass through the cervix and most of the oviduct to the egg (secondary oocyte) in the upper oviduct.
- Egg and sperm nucleus (both haploid) fuse to produce the diploid zygote.
Polypeptides
Another name for proteins (dipeptide, tripeptide, etc)
Chlorophylls a and b
Ring structure with magnesium atom in center
Hydrocarbon tail which anchors them to integral proteins in the thylakoids membrane
Absorb in red and blue region
Organization of the immune system
Nonspecific immune response- protects against foreign substances without having to recognize their identity
Specific immune response- highly specific, usually a major problem that your body is really trying to fight
Membrane potential
Extracellular fluid is outside and overall positive(Na+ and Cl-), and intracellular fluid is inside and overall negative(K+) with an impermeable membrane in between
Separate charges are attracted to each other through the membrane and create a potential- huge driving force but permeability is not always available
How do we study organelles?
First studied using light microscopy
Cell fractionation separates organelles for study by chemical methods (spin tubes of cells with rotor)
Compliance
Ability to change volume and pressure
Balloon is like the lungs- highly compliant
Paper bag- not compliant
Right parietal lobe damage
Left body sensation
Contralateral neglect syndrome- neglect the left side of the body
Function of Cerebrospinal fluid
Bathes the brain, cools it
Acts as shock absorber
Transports nutrients, chemical messengers and waste products(dumps waste into blood)
Nuclear lamina
Meshwork of proteins which maintains the shape of the nuclear envelope and the nucleus
Electrical Activity of the Heart
- The heart is a cardiac muscle tissue that is constantly contracting (heart beat)
- Q: how does the heart contract?
- A: specialized cells called pacemaker cells that generate their own electrical activities
Monocytes/macrophages
Monocytes are inactive form, on patrol, macrophages are active, they attack
Engulf and digest
Activate T cells
Once monocytes enter tissue they become macrophages
Mode of travel of peptides and steroids
Peptides- travel easy in blood because water soluble
Lipids- mostly water so need transport proteins to shield them from hydrophillicity of blood because not water soluble
Virus
Cause major problems by taking over/infecting cells
The immune system
Protects against infection and microbes
Isolates and removes non microbial foreign substances
Muscles of Expiration
• Passive expiration
– Elastic recoil of the lungs
• Active expiration
– Contraction of internal intercostals
– Contraction of abdominal muscles (causesdiaphragm to be pushed up)
Path of zygote
- Still in the oviduct, the zygote divides to become a blastocyst and continues down the oviduct.
- In the uterus, the blastocyst attaches to the wall lining called the endometrium.
What causes Ca release?
Action potentials at the axon terminal stimulate the release of acetylcholine (neurotransmitter)
ACh minds to Ach receptors activating them, Na+ entry into the cell
Na+ depolarizes the membrane
End plate polarizations (depolarization of muscle fibers, similar to graded/receptor potential) causes action potential in muscle cell
Action potential travels down sarcolemma and dips into T Tubules
Action potential activates DHPR
DHPR protrudes and touches ryanodine receptors, activating the, leading to Ca2+ release from SR into cytosol
Fluorescence
When a pigment returns to ground state some of the energy may be given off as heat and some as fluorescence
Fluorescence has longer wavelengths and less energy than the absorbed light energy
No chemical work done
If pigment can pass the energy to another molecule, there’s no fluorescence, the energy can be passed to a reaction center where it is converted to chemical energy
Lymphoid tissues
Adenoids, tonsils, thymus, lymph noes, spleen, bone marrow, lymphatic vessels
Immune cells originate here, majorly from bone marrow
immune cells are scattered all over, but they are clustered in certain areas in case of infection
Correlation of Electrocardiogram graph and heart activities
Beginning of P wave- SA Node, AV
Middle to end of P wave- AV Nodal delay
Between P wave and QRS- Signals travel through bundle of his reaching the apex
QRS complex- pukinje fibers
Within ventricles, heart contracts from bottom to top, all the blood comes out, none remains below
Hair cells hyperpolarized
Movement of stereo cilia away from kinocilium closes stretch activated channels
No neurotransmitter release
Anencephaly
failure of the neural tube to close at the anterior end and no forebrain develops
Photosynthesis
“synthesis from light”
Plants take in CO2, produce carbohydrates, and release O2 and water
Light is required
6CO2 + 12H2O–> C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O
Proteins digestion
Dietary proteins
Salivary glands: pepsin breaks them down to small polypeptides
Pancreas: pancreatic trypsinogen and chymotrypsinogen breaks them down into smaller polypeptides, pancreatic procarboxypeptidase breaks them down into very small peptides and amino acids
Small intestine: aminopeptidases break them down into amino acids
Photophosphorylation
Light driven production of ATP
H+ transported via electron carriers across the thylakoid membrane from the stroma into the lumen, creating an electrochemical gradient
Monocytes/macrophages
Monocytes are inactive form, on patrol, macrophages are active, they attack
Engulf and digest
Activate T cells
Once monocytes enter tissue they become macrophages
Pigments
Molecules that absorb specific wavelengths in the visible range of the spectrum
Photons can have a wide range of wavelengths and energy levels
Roles of the plasma membrane
Selectively permeable barrier
Interface for cells where info is received from adjacent cells and extracellular signals
Allows cells to maintain a constant internal environment
Molecules responsible for binding to adjacent cells
Glyoxisomes
Structurally similar organelles found in plants that convert lipids to carbs (fats to sugars)
Light independent reactions
“dark reactions”
Use ATP and NADH from light reactions plus CO2 to produce carbohydrates (because coenzymes ATP and NADH are not stored, need light for light reaction first)
Nonspecific Immune response/inflammation
• Occurs through cut or injury to the skin
• Sequence of events ensue to protect the body against infection
– Phagocytosis and recruitment
– Vasodilation and increase in permeability
– Phagocytic cells migration
– Tissue repair
Neurons
Functional units of the nervous system
Able to communicate with each other and with other cells through the body through electrical and chemical signals
clitoris
the anatomical analog of the male penis that is capable of erection and is highly sensitive to sexual stimulation
Both the labia minora and clitoris become engorgedwith blood during sexual stimulation
Nucleic acids
Polymers specialized for the storage, transmission, and use of genetic information
DNA: deoxyribonucleic acid (can convey info)
RNA: ribonucleic acid
Inspiration
Diaphragm- Lungs physically sit on diaphragm, main muscle for respiration, pushes down during inspiration
External intercostal muscles- contact and push down
Bone marrow
Produces mulitpotent hematopoietic cell, which in return can be a myeloid or a lymphoid progenitor cel
Stem cells- have not differentiated yet, blood stem cells can become blood cells
Pacemaker activities
Sinoatrial node has ability to generate its own action potentials, which spread to atrioventricular node, then uncle of his, the bundle branches, then to purkinje fibers, spread from one pacemaker area to another, causes cardiac tissues to contract.
Pacemaker cells (1% of heart), make sure electrical signals are occurring and trigger release of calcium needed to contract muscles
Heart contracts in waves as the electrical activity spreads. Atrium contract first and ventricles second, gives ventricles time to relax in the slight delay
System of respiration
Constant exchange of air: ventilation (tidal volume)
Diffusion- oxygen from lungs to blood
Circulation- bulk transport
Diffusion of oxygen into cells
Cellular respiration
Acinar cells
• Acinar cells release three classes of enzymes into the duodenal lumen
– Proteolytic enzymes: trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen, and procarboxypeptidase (All enzymes that digest proteins are released in inactive form, so they can be activated when you need them and specifically digest dietary proteins instead of proteins found on the membranes of cells)
– Pancreatic amylase (digest polysaccharides into disaccharides), Completes digestion of carbohydrates
– Pancreatic lipase (digest triglycerides into glycerol and fatty acids), Needs bile from the liver to perform its function
Pressure change
Breathing associated with skeletal muscles that are constantly contracting and relaxing, gases are quantified by pressur
Atmospheric pressure (Patm)- pressure on the outside in the environment
Alveolar pressure (Palv)-pressure inside your lungs
Intrapleural pressure (Pip)- pressure in pleural sac, fills up with fluid that exerts pressure
Alveolar and interpleural pressure are constantly fluctuating because they depend on your state
Intermediate filaments
Fund in multicellular organisms, form rope like structures in cells
Stabilize cell strucuture and resist tension
Can maintain the positions of organelles
Lamins provide structural support to the nuclear membrane
Thickness of endometrium
About 5 days after ovulation it is at its maximal thickness and ready to accept
Highly proliferated and vasularized
Microbes
Harmful substances, living or dead
Microfilaments
Made of protein actin, can be single filaments or networks
Needed for cell contraction (as in muscle cells, associated with myosin for muscle contraction), also add structure to plasma membrane and shape to cells
Involved in cytoplasmic streaming and formation of pseudopodia
Polar, polymerizes to form long helical chains
Boyle’s law
Pressure and volume are inversely proportiona
Gases in a container, when volume decreased, pressure increases due to collision of gas molecules and now these gas molecules are confined to a smaller place, so more bombardment
Lungs are always changing in volume so the pressure changes as well with inspiration and expiration
Hormonal secretion
Gland releases hormone by triggering mechanism to stimulate gland to release hormone- Different gland triggered in different ways
Gap junctions in cardiac muscles
protein ensures exchange of material between cells, important in heart because they ensure synchrony in contraction by spreading electrical activities
(ex all cells in atria contract at the same time, in ventricles those cells contract simultaneously to ensure efficiency)
Membranes with carbohydrates
Have carbohydrates on outer surface that serve as recognition sites for other cells and molecules
Quaternary structure
Interaction of subunits by hydrophobic interactions, van der waals forces, ionic bonds, and hydrogen bonds
Each subunit has its own tertiary structure
Most common phospholipids
Derived from glycerol except for sphingomylein
Cell recognition and adhesion
Sponge cells- separation and come back together
Glycoproteins are involved in cell recognition and binding
Homotypic binding- same molecule sticks out from both cells and forms a bond
Heterotypic binding- cells have different proteins
Turgor pressure
Plant cells with rigid walls build up internal pressure that keeps more water from entering
Ectoderm in heat
They have to move to a cooler area, behavioral mechanism
As temperature increases their body temperature increases
Nonspecific Immune response/inflammation
• Occurs through cut or injury to the skin
• Sequence of events ensue to protect the body against infection
– Phagocytosis and recruitment
– Vasodilation and increase in permeability
– Phagocytic cells migration
– Tissue repair
Extracellular matrix
Composed of fibrous proteins (like collagen) and glycoproteins
Epithelial cells (lining human body cavities) have basement membrane of extracellular material called the basal lamina
Bipolar neurons
Two extensions only
Found in ears, nose, and eyes
Functions as sensory neurons, allows you to feel
Pressure change
Breathing associated with skeletal muscles that are constantly contracting and relaxing, gases are quantified by pressur
Atmospheric pressure (Patm)- pressure on the outside in the environment
Alveolar pressure (Palv)-pressure inside your lungs
Intrapleural pressure (Pip)- pressure in pleural sac, fills up with fluid that exerts pressure
Alveolar and interpleural pressure are constantly fluctuating because they depend on your state
Parts of the respiratory system
Nasal/oral cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, primary/secondary/tertiary bronchus, bronchioles (if you don’t need a lot of oxygen bronchioles are slightly constricted), alveoli (site of exchange)
All made of cartilage up to the trachea
T-Tubules and SR
Special voltage sensitive calcium channels (more like sensors of electrical activity) known as dihydropyridine receptors located on T Tubules, undergoes a conformational change when activated
Ryanodine receptors(foot proteins) located on lateral sacs of SR, they are typical ligand gated calcium channels that are a gateway for calcium ions to go into the cell cytosol because there is a high concentration in the SR that could build up and be toxic
Compliance
Ability to change volume and pressure
Balloon is like the lungs- highly compliant
Paper bag- not compliant
How do arteries move blood?
Arteries have high pressure, and blood aided by gravity so blood can reach far such as feet
Types of lipids
Fats and oils- store energy
Phospholipids- structural role in cell membranes
Carotenoids and chlorophylls- capture light energy in plants
Steroids and modified fatty acids- hormones and vitamins
Animal fat- thermal insulation
Lipid coating around nerves- electrical insulation
Oil and wax on skin fur and feathers- repels water
The three fundamental steps of sexual reproduction are:
– Gametogenesis (producing sperm and eggs, requires meiosis)
– Mating (getting sperm and egg together)
– Fertilization (fusion of sperm and egg)
- Gametogenesis and fertilization are fairly similar in different groups of animals.
- Mating behaviors, however, show incredible diversity.
Functional group
Groups of atoms with specific chemical properties and consistent behavior
Each macromolecule has at least one
Triglycerides
Simple lipids composed of fatty acids and glycerol (ex:fats and oils)
How do gases cross the lung/bloodmedia?
Process of diffusion.
Alveoli made of single layered cells, blood capillaries only have tunica intima and some connective tissue, so very thin, and easy process of diffusion
Both the capillaries and the alveoli are lined with simple squamous epithelium
Childbirth
- Passage of the baby is assisted by the mother’s bearing down with her abdominal muscles.
- Once the baby is clear of the birth canal it canstart breathing and become independent of the mother’s circulation, so the umbilical cord is clamped and cut.
- Finally, the placenta and fetal membranes are detached from the mother and expelled (several minutes–1 hour)
Autoimmune disease
Immune system turned against you, attacks a particular tissue
- diabetes type 1: attacks beta cells that produce insulin
- multiple sclerosis: attacks myelin, slows electrical activities
- rheumatoid arthritis: attacks joints
Energy transfer and electron transport
Light energy absorbed by antenna chlorophylls, and passed on to reaction center
Molecule goes to excited state
Energized electron from chlorophyll molecules passed to electron acceptor to reduce it
Energy transfer and electron transport
Light energy absorbed by antenna chlorophylls, and passed on to reaction center
Molecule goes to excited state
Energized electron from chlorophyll molecules passed to electron acceptor to reduce it
Nucleoplasm
Surrounds the chromatin
Lymphoid progenitor cells
Form into B lymphocytes, T lymphocytes
Sodium-potassium pump
Primary active transport, found in all animal cells
Pump is an integral membrane glycoprotein that is an antiporter
Gets 3 sodium ions out and 2 potassium ions in by hydrolyzing ATP
Photosystem
Multiple antenna systems, surround reaction centers
Pigments packed together on thylakoids membrane proteins
Excitation energy passes from the pigments that absorb short wavelengths to those that absorb longer wavelengths, and ends up in the reaction center pigment
Protist
Uni or multicellular, contaminate lakes and drinking water to invade host
Hemoglobin
Hemoglobin is a metal (iron) that is positively charged, and oxygen negatively charged, so they bind
Mechanisms of steroids action on target cells
Every cell exposed to this hormone, and steroid cell is hydrophobic so can interact with every cell but not every cell has receptor
Exits blood vessel to get to the target cell
Steroid permeates through cell membrane and forms complex called hormone receptor complex in nucleus, bind to a section of DNA gene called hormone response element that activates the gene to start gene expression
Messenger RNA made and goes to the cell cytosol
Synthesizes protien and makes changes inside the cell and causes cellular response
Slow process but major changes
Pressure and Volume Change
During inspiration the volume of the lungs increases and the pressure decreases- atmospheric pressure is higher than alveolar pressure, and diffusion can occur
During expiration, the volume of the lungs decreases and the pressure increases- alveolar pressure becomes higher than atmospheric pressure- diffusion outwards
Kinesin
Motor protein, moves toward plus end
seminiferous tubules
- Spermatogenesis takes place in the seminiferous tubules of the testis.
- Each tubule is lined with a stratified epithelium, within which spermatogoniareside and mature into sperm cells
Production of sperm is temperature dependent- if cold scrotum will cuddle against body
Stem cells can divide and divide and divide make sperm
Gas transport through membranes
Oxygen has to cross alveoli and membrane of the capillaries to get into the plasma, and then another membrane to get inside the red blood cells
Loading phase- hemoglobin picks up oxygen
Unloading phase- release oxygen into your tissues to use, takes into mitochondria to produce ATP
Korbian Brodmann
Successfully mapped the brain- 52 areas responsible for different functions
Secondary lysosome
Phagosomes fuse with primary lysosomes to form secondary lysosomes
Enzymes hydrolyze the food molecules
Carbs can be modified by the addition of functional groups
Sugar phosphate (can make fructose biphosphate, intermediate compound in biochemical pathways) Amino sugars (glucosamine, major component of cartilage) Chitin ( insect and crustacean skeletons)
AP Step 5
Once membrane reaches +30 mV the VGSC inactivate blocking the flow of sodium ions
VGPC opens causing potassium ions to flow out and repolarize the membrane
At -70 perfect repolarization begins
Blastocoel
a central fluid-filled cavity that forms in the ball of cells
The embryo becomes a blastula and its cells are called blastomeres
Blastocoel
a central fluid-filled cavity that forms in the ball of cells
The embryo becomes a blastula and its cells are called blastomeres
Extensive ER membrane system
Cells specialized for synthesizing proteins have these
Function of Saliva in theMouth
- Contains amylase (enzyme that helps general digestion) and lingual lipase (digests lipids, minimal role)
- Facilitates swallowing by moistening food particles
- Provides antibacterial action by releasing lysozymes
- Saliva dissolves food particles to stimulate taste buds, which need to be moist in order for you to taste
- Aids in speech
- Neutralizes ingested acid
Specific Recognition Between Sperm and Egg
- Specific recognition molecules mediate interactions between sperm and eggs.
- This ensures that activities of the sperm are directed toward eggs and not other cells and prevents eggs from being fertilized by sperm of the wrong species.
- This latter function is particularly importantin aquatic species, such as sea urchins, that release sperm and eggs into the surrounding water.
Carotenoids
Light-absorbing pigments
Source of vitamin A
Fluorescence
When a pigment returns to ground state some of the energy may be given off as heat and some as fluorescence
Fluorescence has longer wavelengths and less energy than the absorbed light energy
No chemical work done
If pigment can pass the energy to another molecule, there’s no fluorescence, the energy can be passed to a reaction center where it is converted to chemical energy
Glycosidic linkages
Monosaccharides bind together in these condensation reactions
Can be alpha or beta
First trimester
embryo becomes a fetus
Heart begins to beat by week 4
Limbs form by week 8
The first trimester is the period during which the fetus is most susceptible to damage from radiation, drugs, chemicals, and agents that cause birth defects.
The hormone hCG (human chorionic gonadotropin) is released after implantation and is an early indicator of pregnancy
Primary lysosomes
Originate from Golgi apparatus
Contain digestive enzymes- macromolecules are hydrolyzed into monomers
Waxes
Highly nonpolar and impermeable to water
Ester linkage between saturated long chain fatty acid and a saturated long chain alcohol
Lipids digestion
Dietary lipids
Pancreas and liver: bile salts break fat globules down into fat droplets, pancreatic lipase breaks them down into glycerol, fatty acids, monoglycerides
Glycolipids
Carbohydrate and lipid
Tympanic membrane
Ear drum, small membrane connected to ossicles
During gastrulation, three germ layers form
– The inner germ layer is the endoderm and gives rise to the digestive tract, circulatory tract, and respiratory tract.
– The outer layer, the ectoderm, gives rise to the epidermis and nervous system.
– The middle layer, the mesoderm, contributes to bone, muscle, liver, heart, and blood vessels
Types of lipids
Fats and oils- store energy
Phospholipids- structural role in cell membranes
Carotenoids and chlorophylls- capture light energy in plants
Steroids and modified fatty acids- hormones and vitamins
Animal fat- thermal insulation
Lipid coating around nerves- electrical insulation
Oil and wax on skin fur and feathers- repels water
Pathogens
Parasite
Bacteria
Protist
Fungi
Virus
Lymphoid progenitor cells
Form into B lymphocytes, T lymphocytes
Phagocytosis
Attatchment (opsonization)- Physically bind to pathogen
Internalization, turns into phagosome
Degradation- Fuses with lysosome and becomes phagolysosome, and after the digestive enzymes can be reused
Exocytosis- elimination of debris
Polar covalent bond
One atom has more electronegativity
Mast cells
- Mast cells are found throughout connective tissues (not found in blood)
- They release histamine and other chemicals involved in inflammation
Polypeptides
Another name for proteins (dipeptide, tripeptide, etc)
Branching of the airways
Conducting zone: trachea, primary bronchi, secondary bronchi, tertiary bronchi, bronchioles
Respiratory zone: respiratory bronchioles, alveoli (each alveolus is covered with many capillaries to facilitate the exchange of materials)
Saltatory conductance part 1
Active node at peak of action potential, depolarization spreads to adjacent inactive node and raises it to the threshold. Remainder of nodes still at resting potential
Viagra
first introduced for heart problems, sexual excitation, want blood to flow to the penis faster than it flows out, need dilation of blood vessels which requires neurotransmitter nitrous oxide, produces a dilation of the blood vessels. If excessive production of phosphodiesterase, it breaks down nitrous oxide. But Viagra inhibits phosphodiesterase, that can cause problems with vision and the breakdown of cyclic gmp
Coupling of reactions
Endergonic reaction releases energy (cell respiration and catabolism), high energy bonds in ATP because it takes a lot of energy to hold together the negatively charged phosphate groups, so a lot of engy is released when broken
Exeronic reaction requires energy (active transport, cell movements, anabolism)
Ends up in a cycle
Pili
Threadlike structures, help bacteria adhere to one another during mating or to other cells for food and protection
Some prokaryotes have these
Bacteria
Unicellular prokaryotes
Fluorescence
When a pigment returns to ground state some of the energy may be given off as heat and some as fluorescence
Fluorescence has longer wavelengths and less energy than the absorbed light energy
No chemical work done
If pigment can pass the energy to another molecule, there’s no fluorescence, the energy can be passed to a reaction center where it is converted to chemical energy
Centrioles
Made of microtubules
Fund in organizing center near the cell nucleus
Similar to basal bodies, but in center of call and help in movement of chromosomes during cell division
Energy transfer and electron transport
Light energy absorbed by antenna chlorophylls, and passed on to reaction center
Molecule goes to excited state
Energized electron from chlorophyll molecules passed to electron acceptor to reduce it
Sarcolemma
has extensions (invaginations) that dig deep into the cytoplasm known as TTubules
Phospholipid with embedded proteins but the many invaginations maximize contact and make the electrical activities go deep inside the muscle cells so that it is closer to the myofibrils, activates certain muscles located near the SR
Function of Saliva in theMouth
- Contains amylase (enzyme that helps general digestion) and lingual lipase (digests lipids, minimal role)
- Facilitates swallowing by moistening food particles
- Provides antibacterial action by releasing lysozymes
- Saliva dissolves food particles to stimulate taste buds, which need to be moist in order for you to taste
- Aids in speech
- Neutralizes ingested acid
Sharp object penetrating skin
Easiest way to get infected by a pathogen
Some cells are already in the vicinity, they destroy and then call for back up
Virus
Cause major problems by taking over/infecting cells
Oogenesis
- Oogenesis produces eggs.
- Individual egg maturation can be arrested for months, or for as long as 10 (puberty) to 50 (menopause) years in humans!
- During this phase, the primary oocyte grows and addsto its energy, ribosome, and organelle stores. This tpermits the resulting embryo to have nourishment.
Regulatory subunit
Inhibitors and activators bind here
Vacuoles
In plant and protist cells
Store waste products and toxic compounds; some may deter herbivores
Provides structure for plant cells, water enters by osmosis and creates turbot pressure
Stores anthocyanins(pigment) in flowers/fruit to attract pollinators
Digestive enzymes to hydrolyze stored food for early growth
CO2 fixation
CO2 is reduced to carbohydrates
Enzymes in the stroma use the energy in ATP and NADPH to reduce CO2
Because the ATP and NADPH are not “stockpiled,” these light independent reactions must also take place in light
AIDS
Acquired immune deficiency syndrome, viruses attack immune cells, vulnerable system open to opportunistic infection
Gastrulation
Gastrulation is the process in which a blastulais transformed into an embryo with three
tissue layers and body axes
Sharp object penetrating skin
Easiest way to get infected by a pathogen
Some cells are already in the vicinity, they destroy and then call for back up
Acid
Releases hydrogen ions through ionization, ph less than 7
Cilia
Shorter, present in great numbers
Proteins digestion
Dietary proteins
Salivary glands: pepsin breaks them down to small polypeptides
Pancreas: pancreatic trypsinogen and chymotrypsinogen breaks them down into smaller polypeptides, pancreatic procarboxypeptidase breaks them down into very small peptides and amino acids
Small intestine: aminopeptidases break them down into amino acids
Different contributions to the zygote:
- Sperm: DNA and a centriole, in somespecies.
* Egg: DNA, organelles, nutrients, transcription factors, mRNAs.
Phagocytosis
Attatchment (opsonization)- Physically bind to pathogen
Internalization, turns into phagosome
Degradation- Fuses with lysosome and becomes phagolysosome, and after the digestive enzymes can be reused
Exocytosis- elimination of debris
Microbes
Harmful substances, living or dead
Chorionic villus sampling
tissue isremoved from the chorion after the eighth week
Chemical barriers
Sebum- oily acidic substance released from sebaceous glands
Lacrimal glands- tears protect sclera and cornea, dripping through nasal cavity, washing of the eye
Lysozymes- degrading/digestive enzymes secreted from the mucous membranes
Defensins- peptides secreted from the mucous membranes
Ear wax- things get stuck
Sweat- cools body and at same time destroys microorganisms on skin, B.O. Is the degradation of bacteria on skin
Macrophages- immune cells
Stomach acid- HCl, damaging
Saliva
When a pigment molecule absorbs a photon (excited state) the energy can be-
Released as heat and/or light
Transferred to another molecule
Used for a chemical reaction
Chromatin
Diffuse or long thin fibers in which DNA is bound to proteins
Prior to cell division these condense and form chromosomes
Path of zygote
- Still in the oviduct, the zygote divides to become a blastocyst and continues down the oviduct.
- In the uterus, the blastocyst attaches to the wall lining called the endometrium.
Autoimmune disease
Immune system turned against you, attacks a particular tissue
- diabetes type 1: attacks beta cells that produce insulin
- multiple sclerosis: attacks myelin, slows electrical activities
- rheumatoid arthritis: attacks joints
Absorption spectrum
Plot of wavelengths absorbed by a pigment
Amniocentesis
extraction of amnioticfluid with a needle, after the fourteenth week of pregnancy
Sertoli cells
• The germ cells are protected from noxioussubstances in the blood by Sertoli cells, which also provide nutrients for the developing sperm and are involved in the hormonal control of spermatogenesis.
Photosynthesis in noncyclic electron electron transport
Each photosystem consists of several chlorophyll and accessory pigment molecules
Complement each other, must be constantly absorbing light energy to power noncyclic electron transport
Mitochondrial matrix
Region enclosed by inner membrane
Krebs or citric acid cycle takes place here
Smooth ER
Ribosome free region
Phagocytosis & Recruitment
- Macrophages in the nearby tissue detect bacteria using receptor proteins to engulf them
- Macrophages release cytokines- chemicals for recruitment
- Mast cells release histamine- causes vasodilation
- Injured cells release chemotaxins- chemo attractants to attract immune cells
Sharp object penetrating skin
Easiest way to get infected by a pathogen
Some cells are already in the vicinity, they destroy and then call for back up
Bacteria
Unicellular prokaryotes
Lipids digestion
Dietary lipids
Pancreas and liver: bile salts break fat globules down into fat droplets, pancreatic lipase breaks them down into glycerol, fatty acids, monoglycerides
Eukaryotes
Membrane enclosed nucleus as well as other membrane enclosed compartments
Animals, plants, fungi, protists
Contains organelles, membrane enclosed nucleus
Protein scaffolding called cytoskeleton
Hypothalamus and anterior pituitary
• The hypothalamus controls the anterior pituitary by secreting hypophysiotropic hormones (releasing hormones)
– Dopamine (DA)
– Gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH)
– Thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH)
– Corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH)
– Growth hormone releasing hormone (GHRH)– Somatostatin (SS)
Phagocytosis
Attatchment (opsonization)- Physically bind to pathogen
Internalization, turns into phagosome
Degradation- Fuses with lysosome and becomes phagolysosome, and after the digestive enzymes can be reused
Exocytosis- elimination of debris
Components of homeostatic system
• Receptors
– Provide information about specific conditions
• Control Center
– Evaluates the information from receptors
– Set point
• Effectors
– Respond to restore the deviation from the setvalues of the internal environment
Amino Acids Absorption
- Absorbed by secondary active transportsimilar to carbohydrates absorption
- Taken to the blood via carrier proteins
Nuclear pores
In the nuclear envelope, connect the interior of the nucleus with the rest of the cytoplasm
Pore complex- 8 large protein granules surround each pore
RNA and proteins must pass through these pores to enter or leave the nucleus
Processes in Calvin Benson cycle
Fixation of CO2 by combination with RuBP (catalyzes by rubisco)
Conversion of fixed CO2 into carbohydrate G3P (using ATP and NADPH)
Regeneration of CO2 acceptor RuBP by ATP
Base
Releases hydroxide ions, accept H+, ph greater than 7
Photo system 1
Light energy reduces NADP+ to NADPH
Reaction center has chlorophyll a molecules: P700 absorbs in the 700nm range
Absorption spectrum
Plot of wavelengths absorbed by a pigment
Sharp object penetrating skin
Easiest way to get infected by a pathogen
Some cells are already in the vicinity, they destroy and then call for back up
Second trimester
limbs elongate and facial features form
Golgi apparatus
Has flattened membrane sacs and small membrane enclosed vesicles
Phagocytosis
Attatchment (opsonization)- Physically bind to pathogen
Internalization, turns into phagosome
Degradation- Fuses with lysosome and becomes phagolysosome, and after the digestive enzymes can be reused
Exocytosis- elimination of debris
G3P
Gylceraldehyde 3 phosphate
5/6 recycled into RuBP
1/6 converted to starch and sucrose to make glucose and fructose
Blastocoel
a central fluid-filled cavity that forms in the ball of cells
The embryo becomes a blastula and its cells are called blastomeres
Pathogens
Parasite
Bacteria
Protist
Fungi
Virus
Male genitalia
Penis and scrotum
Pressure and Volume Change
During inspiration the volume of the lungs increases and the pressure decreases- atmospheric pressure is higher than alveolar pressure, and diffusion can occur
During expiration, the volume of the lungs decreases and the pressure increases- alveolar pressure becomes higher than atmospheric pressure- diffusion outwards
Photosynthesis
“synthesis from light”
Plants take in CO2, produce carbohydrates, and release O2 and water
Light is required
6CO2 + 12H2O–> C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O
Sterile cotton swab
Collect microorganisms by smearing on surface
Put on a culture dish with solution called tryptic soy agar, which has nutrients that make bacteria reproduce so you can see them
Premature Contractions and Delivery
- A positive feedback loop develops (mechanical stimuli increase the release of oxytocin, and vice versa), and this converts Braxton-Hicks contractions into stronger labor contractions.
- In the early stage of labor, contractions gradually become more frequent and intense until they haveopened the cervix.
- In the delivery stage, the baby’s head moves into the vagina and becomes visible from the outside.
- The usual head-down position of the baby comes about during the seventh month of pregnancy.
Nuclear pores
In the nuclear envelope, connect the interior of the nucleus with the rest of the cytoplasm
Pore complex- 8 large protein granules surround each pore
RNA and proteins must pass through these pores to enter or leave the nucleus
Pili
Threadlike structures, help bacteria adhere to one another during mating or to other cells for food and protection
Some prokaryotes have these
TRH
Thyrotropin releasing hormone
Stimulates release of TSH
Photosynthesis
“synthesis from light”
Plants take in CO2, produce carbohydrates, and release O2 and water
Light is required
6CO2 + 12H2O–> C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O
Anencephaly
failure of the neural tube to close at the anterior end and no forebrain develops
Cleavage
a rapid series of celldivision, but no cell growth
In mammals cleavage is rotational:
First cell division is parallel to the animal–vegetal axis; yields two blastomeres.
In second division two blastomeres divide at right angles to each other;one is parallel to the axis and the other is perpendicular to it. This pattern of division is unique to mammals with placentas.
Centrioles
Made of microtubules
Fund in organizing center near the cell nucleus
Similar to basal bodies, but in center of call and help in movement of chromosomes during cell division
How does photosynthesis convert light energy to chemical energy?
Reaction center converts light energy to chemical energy
Excited chlorophyll a molecule (Chl*) is a reducing agent (electron donor)
A is an acceptor molecule (oxidizing agent)
Chl* + A –> Chl+ + A-
A is the first in a chain of electron carriers on the thylakoid membrane (electron transport) a series of redox reactions
Final electron acceptor is NADP+
NADP+ + e- –> NADPH + H+
Eukaryotes
Membrane enclosed nucleus as well as other membrane enclosed compartments
Animals, plants, fungi, protists
Contains organelles, membrane enclosed nucleus
Protein scaffolding called cytoskeleton
Genome
Complete set of DNA in a living organism
Vasodilation & Increased Permeability
• Histamine causes vasodilation
– increases diameter, Increase in blood flow to infected area
– Redness occurs
– Increase delivery of proteins
– Edema occurs- swelling, fluid from blood cells into interstitial tissue
- increased permeability- proteins gain entry from blood to interstitial fluid
- objective- get more immune cells
Secondary structure
Alpha helix- right handed coil, resulting from hydrogen bonding, common in fibrous structural proteins
Beta pleated sheet- two or more polypeptide chains are aligned, hydrogen bonded
Muscles of Expiration
• Passive expiration
– Elastic recoil of the lungs
• Active expiration
– Contraction of internal intercostals
– Contraction of abdominal muscles (causesdiaphragm to be pushed up)
Monosaccharides with different numbers of carbons
Hexoses: six carbons, has structural isomers (mannose, galactose, fructose)
Pentoses: five carbons (ribose has OH, deoxyribose is more stable, has H)
Processes in Calvin Benson cycle
Fixation of CO2 by combination with RuBP (catalyzes by rubisco)
Conversion of fixed CO2 into carbohydrate G3P (using ATP and NADPH)
Regeneration of CO2 acceptor RuBP by ATP
Photosystem 2
Light energy oxidizes water to oxygen, H+, and electrons
Reaction center has chlorophyll a molecules: P680 absorbs at 680 nm (more energetic than P700)
Excited first
Non spontaneous reaction
Need input of energy
Endergonic, positive delta G
Reverse process must be exergonic
Oval window
Membrane covered opening, leads from middle ear to inner ear
Lymphoid progenitor cells
Form into B lymphocytes, T lymphocytes
How do veins move blood?
low pressure because at the end of that circuit, hold the majority of blood, and if the blood is going back up it is working against gravity, dead on skeletal muscles
Skeletal muscle pump- veins are in between muscles and contraction pumps blood, valves in veins prevent blood from coming back down when muscles relax
Microbes
Harmful substances, living or dead
Autoimmune disease
Immune system turned against you, attacks a particular tissue
- diabetes type 1: attacks beta cells that produce insulin
- multiple sclerosis: attacks myelin, slows electrical activities
- rheumatoid arthritis: attacks joints
Ingredients for photosynthesis
Co2 reduced to sugars that travel throughout the plant body
Water up taken by roots
Water and oxygen released
Path of the egg
the mature egg is released into the body cavity and is swept into the end of the oviduct (Fallopian tube) by an undulating fringe of tissue (Fertilization takes place in the oviduct and, in humans, the second meiotic division takes place)
Cilia lining the oviduct propel the fertilized or unfertilized egg toward the uterus, a muscular, thick-walled cavity
The opening at the bottom of the uterus is the cervix,which leads into the vagina
Salts
Ionically bonded compounds
Hemoglobin
Hemoglobin is a metal (iron) that is positively charged, and oxygen negatively charged, so they bind
Pressure change
Breathing associated with skeletal muscles that are constantly contracting and relaxing, gases are quantified by pressur
Atmospheric pressure (Patm)- pressure on the outside in the environment
Alveolar pressure (Palv)-pressure inside your lungs
Intrapleural pressure (Pip)- pressure in pleural sac, fills up with fluid that exerts pressure
Alveolar and interpleural pressure are constantly fluctuating because they depend on your state
If blocker blocked gated channels?
It would stop action potentials
Tetrodotoxin- in puffer fish, affects predators
novociane- pain suppressors block VGSC, both reversible
Spina bifida
failure of the neural tube to fuse in a posterior region dueto vitamin B deficiency
Lungs and the mechanisms of the chest
Easy, effortless to breath because of the mechanics of the lungs- always slightly inflated to make inspiration easier
Lungs attached to chest wall and inner layer of your rib cage by very thin set of membranes called a pleural sac
Ribs protect your lungs and work in synchrony with them, chest expands and increase in volume along with your lungs
Cations
Positive
Function of the DigestiveSystem
- Breaks down the food we eat, breaking the covalent bonds that make up large molecules
- Absorbs the food to transfer it to cells
- Food can be used with oxygen to produce energy
- travels from digestive system into blood, so it can be accessible to our cells
Gated channels
Can be closed or open to ion passage, most ion channels are gated
Gate opens when protein is stimulated to change shape
Stimulus can be molecule (ligand gated) or electrical charge resulting from many ions (voltage gated)
Stoma
Mouth of plant
Co2 enters and O2/water exit through these pores
How is Carbon Dioxide Transported?
5-6% dissolved in plasma
5-8% bind to hemoglobin at a different binding site than oxygen
86-90% converted to hydrogen ions and bicarbonate by enzyme called carbonic anhydrase. When co2 goes up hydrogen ions go up and ph decreases, and vice versa. Want ph of 7.4
Binocular vision
Overlap of left and right visual field, gives us depth perception
Spermatogenesis
Male germ cell (2n)
Mitosis
Spermatogonium (2n)
Mitosis (first DNA synthesis-Chromosomes don’t separate, cross over- DNA from two pairs get scrambled)
Primary spermatocyte (2n)
first meiotic division (no DNA synthesis)
Secondary spermatocytes (1n)
Secondary meiotic division, independent assortment of chromosomes
Spermatids (1n)
Differentiation and maturation
Sperm cells (1n)
Chemoreceptors
Homeostatic mechanism: Chemoreceptors constantly measuring level of oxygen and co2, send signal through sensory nerve fibers
Need increased inspiration during exercise, or if holding breath (decrease oxygen availability and increase co2 availability)
• Peripheral
– Carotid bodies
– Aortic bodies
• Central- within nervous system, medulla oblongata
Major endocrine glands
Hypothalamus, pineal, pituitary, Thyroid,Parathyroid, Adrenal glands, Pancreas, Gonads
Hemoglobin
Hemoglobin is a metal (iron) that is positively charged, and oxygen negatively charged, so they bind
Complement system
Pore formation: First complement protein (inactive), cascade of protein activation in bacterial cell
Swelling: fluid rushes into cells
Lysis
emission
contractions of smooth muscles in the vasa deferentia and accessory glands move semen into the urethra
Gas transport through membranes
Oxygen has to cross alveoli and membrane of the capillaries to get into the plasma, and then another membrane to get inside the red blood cells
Loading phase- hemoglobin picks up oxygen
Unloading phase- release oxygen into your tissues to use, takes into mitochondria to produce ATP
Ruben and kamen
Used radioisotope tracers (O18 and O16) to determine that water was the source of O2 released during photosynthesis rather than CO2
Autoimmune disease
Immune system turned against you, attacks a particular tissue
- diabetes type 1: attacks beta cells that produce insulin
- multiple sclerosis: attacks myelin, slows electrical activities
- rheumatoid arthritis: attacks joints
Processes in Calvin Benson cycle
Fixation of CO2 by combination with RuBP (catalyzes by rubisco)
Conversion of fixed CO2 into carbohydrate G3P (using ATP and NADPH)
Regeneration of CO2 acceptor RuBP by ATP
Neutrophils
Most abundant phagocytic cells
Release:
Cytokines- alarming chemicals to alarm other immune cells
Vasodilators- increases size of blood cells, Make blood vessel bigger so immune cells can travel
Chemotaxins- chemo attractants, attract other immune cells, travel in blood vessels and squeeze out of them, can get anywhere in the body
Accessory pigments
Transfer energy absorbed to chorophylls
Carotenoids and phycobilins
Absorb intermediate between red and blue
Sterile cotton swab
Collect microorganisms by smearing on surface
Put on a culture dish with solution called tryptic soy agar, which has nutrients that make bacteria reproduce so you can see them
Phagocytosis
Food molecules enter the cell through a formed phagosome
Peroxisomes
Also called microbodies
Small organelles specialized to compartmentalize toxic peroxides and break them down
Break down of hydrogen peroxide through catalase
Autoimmune disease
Immune system turned against you, attacks a particular tissue
- diabetes type 1: attacks beta cells that produce insulin
- multiple sclerosis: attacks myelin, slows electrical activities
- rheumatoid arthritis: attacks joints
Pigments
Molecule that undergoes chemical change when responding to light
Rods- protein rhodopsin
Cones- protein photopsin, S(blue) M(green) L(red) pigments
These proteins contain a pigment called retinal
third trimester
internal organs mature and organ systems begin to function
The last organs to mature before birthare the lungs
Parts of the respiratory system
Nasal/oral cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, primary/secondary/tertiary bronchus, bronchioles (if you don’t need a lot of oxygen bronchioles are slightly constricted), alveoli (site of exchange)
All made of cartilage up to the trachea
Mast cells
- Mast cells are found throughout connective tissues (not found in blood)
- They release histamine and other chemicals involved in inflammation
Organization of the immune system
Nonspecific immune response- protects against foreign substances without having to recognize their identity
Specific immune response- highly specific, usually a major problem that your body is really trying to fight
Cochlea
Filled with fluid
3 chambers: scala vestibuli/tympani (filled with perilymph, a filtrate of csf, movement of this generates electrical activity) and also cochlear duct (filled with endolymph)
Organ of corti in the center
Connected to auditory nerve
Hormonal secretion
Gland releases hormone by triggering mechanism to stimulate gland to release hormone- Different gland triggered in different ways
Cytotoxic T Cell
Release perform and granzymes
Induce apoptosis (Fas)
Attack cancer cells which stop mitosis regulation and keep dividing- they bond to these and release perforins that poke h ones in the membrane, eater can go in, releases granzymes in the hole or proteins that activate apoptosis
Nuclear envelope
Formed by two lipid bilayers
Photo system 1
Light energy reduces NADP+ to NADPH
Reaction center has chlorophyll a molecules: P700 absorbs in the 700nm range
Gestation
pregnancy
in humans is about 266 days and is divided into trimesters
Blood
Made of cellular components, erythrocytes(red blood cells, carry oxygen), leukocytes, and platelets (minimize blood loss and promote blood plotting) suspended in a plasma fluid
Plasma contains water and proteins (hormones, ions, glucose, amino acids etc)
Only fluid like connective tissue, 90% water. Fluid and cellular component
Energy transfer and electron transport
Light energy absorbed by antenna chlorophylls, and passed on to reaction center
Molecule goes to excited state
Energized electron from chlorophyll molecules passed to electron acceptor to reduce it
G3P
Gylceraldehyde 3 phosphate
5/6 recycled into RuBP
1/6 converted to starch and sucrose to make glucose and fructose
Premature Contractions and Delivery
- A positive feedback loop develops (mechanical stimuli increase the release of oxytocin, and vice versa), and this converts Braxton-Hicks contractions into stronger labor contractions.
- In the early stage of labor, contractions gradually become more frequent and intense until they haveopened the cervix.
- In the delivery stage, the baby’s head moves into the vagina and becomes visible from the outside.
- The usual head-down position of the baby comes about during the seventh month of pregnancy.
Artery
Strong elastic vessels that carry blood away from the heart
Branch into smaller arterioles
Elastic- when heart ejects blood they have to accommodate a large amount of blood, very high pressure, contraction of heart, arteries accommodating this force
Uniform shape
Lipids
Non polar hydrocarbons
Van der waals forces- not polymers in strict sense because they are not covalently bonded
Amniocentesis
extraction of amnioticfluid with a needle, after the fourteenth week of pregnancy
Unipolar neurons
Short single process and divide into two long branches
Function as sensory (efferent) neuron
Movement from capillaries into interstitial fluid
Small things such as ions, glucose, amino acids can move through slits
Small proteins need to move by transcytosis (endo and exo cytosis)
Large proteins cannot get through
Gap junctions
Allow communication, transmit current through channels
Regulated and controlled by ions
Ruben and kamen
Used radioisotope tracers (O18 and O16) to determine that water was the source of O2 released during photosynthesis rather than CO2
GH
Growth hormone
Promotes growth
Target organ: muscles, liver, bones, etc
Chemical structure of hormones
- Hormones can be made of steroids or peptides
- Their synthesis and secretion vary
- Their chemical structure determines their mechanisms of action on target cells
Gestation
pregnancy
in humans is about 266 days and is divided into trimesters
Different contributions to the zygote:
- Sperm: DNA and a centriole, in somespecies.
* Egg: DNA, organelles, nutrients, transcription factors, mRNAs.
Control of breathing
Voluntary until it becomes physiologically dangerous, your brain will force you to breathe.
• Inspiration is initiated by stimulating the respiratory muscles
– Diaphragm and external intercostals
• The stimulation is initiated in the medullary centers and the pons
Medulla oblongata sends signal to spinal cord, phrenic nerve sends action potential to diaphragm. 100% controlled by brain unless you voluntarily change it, stimulation always occurring. Neurons called central patter generator, send action potentials then they stop, perfectly synced on/off mechanism
Rods in the dark
Photoreceptors are depolarized, no signal to the brain
Chemically gated channels area activated by guanosine mono phosphate (a nucleotide), when these levels are high channels are opened
Steps:
CGMP levels are high
Na+ channels are open
Na+ influx causes depolarization- small activity, receptor potential
Ca+ channels open
Ca+ influx occurs
NT release causes graded potential in bipolar cells
Peroxisomes
Also called microbodies
Small organelles specialized to compartmentalize toxic peroxides and break them down
Break down of hydrogen peroxide through catalase
Pacemaker cells
- Sinoatrial node (SA) located in the right atrium
- Atrioventricular node (AV) located on the interatrial septum
- Bundle of His: located on the interventicular septum
- Bundle branches
- Purkinje fibers: located on the ventricular walls
When a pigment molecule absorbs a photon (excited state) the energy can be-
Released as heat and/or light
Transferred to another molecule
Used for a chemical reaction
Inferior vena cava
Brings deoxygenated blood from all structures below diaphragm
Complement system
Pore formation: First complement protein (inactive), cascade of protein activation in bacterial cell
Swelling: fluid rushes into cells
Lysis
Cyclic electron transport
Electron from excited P700 chlorophyll molecule n photosystem one cycles back to the same chlorophyll molecule
Involves a series of exergonic redox reactions, the released energy creates a proton gradient that is used to synthesize ATP
Proteins and lipids in the membrane interacting
Independent, only interact noncovalently
Some membrane proteins have fatty acids or other lipid groups covalently attached, called anchored membrane proteins
Pressure and Volume Change
During inspiration the volume of the lungs increases and the pressure decreases- atmospheric pressure is higher than alveolar pressure, and diffusion can occur
During expiration, the volume of the lungs decreases and the pressure increases- alveolar pressure becomes higher than atmospheric pressure- diffusion outwards
Receptors
Provide information about specific conditions
Group of cells that detects and senses the environment, do not have the ability to change anything, they are like a reporting agency that sends info to control center
Flagella
Come in ones and twos, longer than cilia
Blastomere
- Blastomeres become determined, or committed toa specific fate, at different times in different animals.
- Roundworm and clam blastomeres are already determined at the 8-cell stage.
- If one cell is removed, a portion of the embryo fails to develop normally. This is called mosaic development.
- Humans have regulative development. If some cells are lost during cleavage, other cells can compensate. For genetic testing in humans, one cell can be removed from a blastula following in vitro fertilization. If there are no mutations in the gene of interest, that blastula can be implanted
Diameter of blood vessels
Blood vessels decrease in diameter when a part of your body is not in use, happens because of the tunica media.
Arteries- more tunica media because more regulation
Rest (tone), vasoconstriction, vasodilation
Arrangement of microtubules in flagella and cilia
9+2 array- 9 pairs and 2 individual microtubules in center
At the base of flagella and cilia is the nasal body, the 9 rings extend there
Peristaltic contraction
Unidirectional movement of food through the stomach
Chorionic villus sampling
tissue isremoved from the chorion after the eighth week
Protist
Uni or multicellular, contaminate lakes and drinking water to invade host
Axon
Each neuron has one, generates and conducts signals away from the soma (unidirectional)
Abundant micro tubules for transport
Also known as nerve fibers
Phagocytosis & Recruitment
- Macrophages in the nearby tissue detect bacteria using receptor proteins to engulf them
- Macrophages release cytokines- chemicals for recruitment
- Mast cells release histamine- causes vasodilation
- Injured cells release chemotaxins- chemo attractants to attract immune cells
How is polypeptide chain organized?
Like a sentence- “capital letter” is like the amino group of the first amino acid, and the “period” is like the carboxyl group of the last amino acid
Components of homeostatic system
Receptors
Control centers
Effectors
Vein
Carry blood back to the heart
Have thinner walls than arteries
Small branches are called venules
Not elastic, have low pressure
Thin and collapsed
Triglycerides
Simple lipids composed of fatty acids and glycerol (ex:fats and oils)
Creatine supplements
Do not make a difference for the average individual (maybe will give Olympic athlete the extra boost they need) increases power for a limited amount of time and then the effect is gone
Photo system 1
Light energy reduces NADP+ to NADPH
Reaction center has chlorophyll a molecules: P700 absorbs in the 700nm range
Antenna systems
Pigments arranged in these
Also called light harvesting complexes
Limit of resolution for light microscopy
.61 x .4u / 1.4 = .17u
Photosystem
Multiple antenna systems, surround reaction centers
Pigments packed together on thylakoids membrane proteins
Excitation energy passes from the pigments that absorb short wavelengths to those that absorb longer wavelengths, and ends up in the reaction center pigment
Somites
separate, segmented blocks of cells on either side of the neural tube.
Muscle, cartilage, bone, and lower layer of the skin form from somites.
Neural crest cells are guided by somites to develop into peripheral nerves and other structures
Where are these microorganisms?
They like moisture, food particles, want to get in blood vessels (from there they can travel all over the body)
Nuclear envelope
Formed by two lipid bilayers
Mast cells
- Mast cells are found throughout connective tissues (not found in blood)
- They release histamine and other chemicals involved in inflammation
Inspiration
Diaphragm- Lungs physically sit on diaphragm, main muscle for respiration, pushes down during inspiration
External intercostal muscles- contact and push down
Hypophysis (pituitary gland)
Located behind your nose, size of pea, need it to survive
9 hormones each with particular function
Two separate lobes (anterior and posterior)
Alveolar type II cells
Secrete surfactant which keeps the alveoli from collapsing
Neural pathway
Skin receptors to sensory neuron (receives signal and sends to CNS) to interneuron(processes) to motor neuron to effector
Photosynthesis
“synthesis from light”
Plants take in CO2, produce carbohydrates, and release O2 and water
Light is required
6CO2 + 12H2O–> C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O
Functions of the Respiratory System
- Provides oxygen
- Eliminates carbon dioxide
- Regulates pH level- More co2 you get rid of the more hydrogen ions you get rid of
- Speech production
- Defense against foreign bodies- non specific immunity
Extracellular destruction: complement
• Membrane Attack Complex (MAC)
– Embeds itself in the microbe membrane, forming pores
– Water and salt enter the microbe
Proteins released by liver to do the job: complement system
Z scheme
Model of noncyclic electron transport
Extracts electrons from water and transfers them to NADPH, using energy from photosynthesis one and two and resulting in ATP synthesis
Yields ATP, NADPH, and O2
Accessory Digestive Organs
Food does not get to them but there is important secretion
• Salivary glands – Sublingual (under tongue), submandibular (under mandible), parotid (gland by ear • Pancreas • Liver • Gallbladder
What Affects Hb-OxygenBinding?
Demands for oxygen changing depending on your state. (if sitting, cells in legs not picking up that much oxygen) so ATP production chants, and more ATP produced the more oxygen you get delivered. Waste products signify how much ATP you are making so your red blood cells know.
- BPG (2,3 Bisphosphoglyceric acid)- BPG by product of glycolysis- when increases, unload more oxygen.
- Temperature
- Acidity- lactic acid is byproduct of fermentation
Ribosomes
Sites of protein synthesis
found free in cytoplasm, in mitochondria, bound to the endoplasmic reticulum, and in chloroplasts
Consist of ribosomal RNA and more than 50 other proteins
Functions of the Respiratory System
- Provides oxygen
- Eliminates carbon dioxide
- Regulates pH level- More co2 you get rid of the more hydrogen ions you get rid of
- Speech production
- Defense against foreign bodies- non specific immunity
Calvin and benson
Used 14C radioisotope to determine the sequence of reactions in CO2 fixation
Exposed chlorella to 14CO2 then extracted the organic compounds and separated them by paper chromatography
3 second exposure of chlorella to 14CO2 revealed that the first compound to be formed is 3PG, a 3 carbon sugar phosphate
Gas transport through membranes
Oxygen has to cross alveoli and membrane of the capillaries to get into the plasma, and then another membrane to get inside the red blood cells
Loading phase- hemoglobin picks up oxygen
Unloading phase- release oxygen into your tissues to use, takes into mitochondria to produce ATP
Where are these microorganisms?
They like moisture, food particles, want to get in blood vessels (from there they can travel all over the body)
Functions of the extracellular matrix
Holds cells together in tissues
Contributes to physical properties of tissue
Helps filter material passing between tissues
Helps orient cell movement
Role in chemical signaling
Leydig cells
Male sex hormones are produced by clusters of Leydig cells lying between the seminiferous tubules.
Ester linkage
Carboxyl bind with hydroxyls of glycerol
Cell membranes and the extracellular matrix
Cell membranes adhere to the extracellular matrix
Tans,embrace protein integrity binds to the matrix outside epithelial cells and to actin filaments inside the cells, noncovalent and reversible binding
Secondary active transport
Energy comes from an ion concentration gradient that is established by primary active transport
Energy can be “regained” by letting ions move across a membrane with the concentration gradient
Aids in uptake of amino acids and sugars
Uses symporters and antiporters
Light reactions
Convert light energy to chemical energy as ATP and NADH
Entry of Sperm into the Egg
- In animals with internal fertilization, egg–sperm recognition mechanisms also exist.
- In the female reproductive tract, mammalian sperm are metabolically activated and attracted to the egg in the oviduct, but also aided in their movement by muscular contractions.
- The mammalian egg is surrounded by a thick layer called the cumulus. Beneath that is a protein envelope called the zona pellucida.
- A species-specific glycoprotein in the zona pellucida binds to the head of the sperm.
- The acrosomal reaction is triggered, releasing acrosomal enzymes that digest a path through the zona pellucida
Plasma
• Contain proteins that exert osmoticpressure
• Many types:
– Albumins: transport proteins
– Globulins: immune function
– Fibrinogen: clotting function
• Minerals and electrolytes
Physical barriers
Skin- brick layers of cells, most pathogens can’t get through it, also produces a hard and fibrous protein called keratin. The closest layer to the surface has the highest amount of keratin- the outermost layer of skin is dead, it produced too much keratin to function
Fibrous layer of the eyes
Mucous membrane of the respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive systems, and ear- thick membrane that prevents pathogens from getting into the circulation
Cilia
Gastrulation
Gastrulation is the process in which a blastulais transformed into an embryo with three
tissue layers and body axes
Osmosis
Diffusion of water
Depends on number of solute particles present, not the type of particles
If two solutions are separated by a membrane that allows water but not solutes to pass through the water will diffuse of the region of higher water concentration to the region of lower water concentration
(water will go from hypotonic to hypertonic)
The small intestine
- The small intestine is made of three parts: duodenum, jejunum, and ileum
- Bile and pancreatic enzymes are released into the duodenum
- The circular folds of the small intestine contain finger like projections called villi
- Villi increase the surface area, space in between called crypt of Lieberk hn
- Each villus is made of many epithelial cells
- Each epithelial cell contains microvilli (brush border)- One end of epithelial cell faces the food, one end faces the blood vessel, side that faces food have micro villi
Functions of the extracellular matrix
Holds cells together in tissues
Contributes to physical properties of tissue
Helps filter material passing between tissues
Helps orient cell movement
Role in chemical signaling
placenta
organ of exchange of nutrients and waste products between the embryo’s and the mother’s blood
emission
contractions of smooth muscles in the vasa deferentia and accessory glands move semen into the urethra
Photosystem 2
Light energy oxidizes water to oxygen, H+, and electrons
Reaction center has chlorophyll a molecules: P680 absorbs at 680 nm (more energetic than P700)
Excited first
Roles of Golgi apparatus
Receive proteins from ER and modify them
Concentrate/package/sort proteins before they are sent to their destinations
Sme polysaccharides for plant cell walls are synthesized
Rubisco
Enzyme that catalyzes fixation of CO2
Ribosome bisphosphate carboxylase/
Most abundant protein in the world, 50% of the protein in a leaf
seminal vesicles
produce about two-thirds of the volume of semen, consisting of mucus, fibrinogen (clotting agent), and fructose as an energy source for the sperm
Antenna systems
Pigments arranged in these
Also called light harvesting complexes
During gastrulation, three germ layers form
– The inner germ layer is the endoderm and gives rise to the digestive tract, circulatory tract, and respiratory tract.
– The outer layer, the ectoderm, gives rise to the epidermis and nervous system.
– The middle layer, the mesoderm, contributes to bone, muscle, liver, heart, and blood vessels
Secondary lysosome
Phagosomes fuse with primary lysosomes to form secondary lysosomes
Enzymes hydrolyze the food molecules
Path of zygote
- Still in the oviduct, the zygote divides to become a blastocyst and continues down the oviduct.
- In the uterus, the blastocyst attaches to the wall lining called the endometrium.
Nucleotides
Monomers of nucleic acid
Pentoses sugar, phosphate group, nitrogen containing base
(without phosphate group called nucleosides)
Parasite
Any organism that invades and lives by the expense of another body
Most are animals, either micro or macroscopic
Infects muscles and digestive system takes blood (muscles) and nutrients (liver)
How do gases cross the lung/bloodmedia?
Process of diffusion.
Alveoli made of single layered cells, blood capillaries only have tunica intima and some connective tissue, so very thin, and easy process of diffusion
Both the capillaries and the alveoli are lined with simple squamous epithelium
Barriers to infection
Physical barriers
Chemical barriers
Reflexes
ovarian cycle
- The ovarian cycle repeats about every 28 days.
- A woman’s fertile years total about 450 ovarian cycles. In each cycle in most cases, one oocyte matures and is released.
- The end of fertility (menopause) occurs at about age 50, and only a few oocytes are left in each ovary.
Dunedin
Microtubules cross linked by the spokes of this motor protein
Changes shape when energy is released from ATP, move vesicles toward minus end
The immune system
Protects against infection and microbes
Isolates and removes non microbial foreign substances
Sterile cotton swab
Collect microorganisms by smearing on surface
Put on a culture dish with solution called tryptic soy agar, which has nutrients that make bacteria reproduce so you can see them
Sarcoplasmic reticulum
Modified smooth ER, stores calcium
Found around myofibrils
Lateral sacs are the the end segments that release calcium upon stimulation
Calcium released by a series of events
The immune system
Protects against infection and microbes
Isolates and removes non microbial foreign substances
Gestation
pregnancy
in humans is about 266 days and is divided into trimesters
Chemical bond
Attractive force that links atoms together to form molecules
All chemical bonds involve changes in the relationships of electrons one with the other
Bone marrow
Produces mulitpotent hematopoietic cell, which in return can be a myeloid or a lymphoid progenitor cel
Stem cells- have not differentiated yet, blood stem cells can become blood cells
Boyle’s law
Pressure and volume are inversely proportiona
Gases in a container, when volume decreased, pressure increases due to collision of gas molecules and now these gas molecules are confined to a smaller place, so more bombardment
Lungs are always changing in volume so the pressure changes as well with inspiration and expiration
First trimester
embryo becomes a fetus
Heart begins to beat by week 4
Limbs form by week 8
The first trimester is the period during which the fetus is most susceptible to damage from radiation, drugs, chemicals, and agents that cause birth defects.
The hormone hCG (human chorionic gonadotropin) is released after implantation and is an early indicator of pregnancy
Inner cell mass
• The inner cell mass of the blastocyst splits into an epiblast and hypoblast with a fluid-filled cavity in
between (just like the reptilian and avian gastrula).
- The embryo forms from the epiblast.
- The epiblast also splits off a layer of cells that form the amnion. The amnion grows around the developing embryo.
- The hypoblast cells extend to form the chorion. Thechorion and other tissues produce the placenta.
- The epiblast produces the amnion. Allantoic tissues form the umbilical cord.
Pathogens
Parasite
Bacteria
Protist
Fungi
Virus
Vasodilation & Increased Permeability
• Histamine causes vasodilation
– increases diameter, Increase in blood flow to infected area
– Redness occurs
– Increase delivery of proteins
– Edema occurs- swelling, fluid from blood cells into interstitial tissue
- increased permeability- proteins gain entry from blood to interstitial fluid
- objective- get more immune cells
Fertilization
Fertilization is the union of haploid sperm and haploid egg to produce a single diploid cell, the zygote
Negative feedback mechanism
a decrease in function in response to a stimulus
Mixed endocrine glands
Thymus, heart, stomach, kidneys, and small intestine
The small intestine
- The small intestine is made of three parts: duodenum, jejunum, and ileum
- Bile and pancreatic enzymes are released into the duodenum
- The circular folds of the small intestine contain finger like projections called villi
- Villi increase the surface area, space in between called crypt of Lieberk hn
- Each villus is made of many epithelial cells
- Each epithelial cell contains microvilli (brush border)- One end of epithelial cell faces the food, one end faces the blood vessel, side that faces food have micro villi
Inner cell mass
• The inner cell mass of the blastocyst splits into an epiblast and hypoblast with a fluid-filled cavity in
between (just like the reptilian and avian gastrula).
- The embryo forms from the epiblast.
- The epiblast also splits off a layer of cells that form the amnion. The amnion grows around the developing embryo.
- The hypoblast cells extend to form the chorion. Thechorion and other tissues produce the placenta.
- The epiblast produces the amnion. Allantoic tissues form the umbilical cord.
Centrioles
Made of microtubules
Fund in organizing center near the cell nucleus
Similar to basal bodies, but in center of call and help in movement of chromosomes during cell division
Duodenum
Receives:
Food from stomach
Important secretions from pancreas
Secretion from liver and gall bladder
Complete absorption will occur here
System of respiration
Constant exchange of air: ventilation (tidal volume)
Diffusion- oxygen from lungs to blood
Circulation- bulk transport
Diffusion of oxygen into cells
Cellular respiration
Positive feedback system
Things are out of control and we lose stability, things keep increasing and we cannot stop it
Ex: Menstrual cycle, keep producing estrogen and very unstable, also lactation, can continue basically forever
Childbirth
- Passage of the baby is assisted by the mother’s bearing down with her abdominal muscles.
- Once the baby is clear of the birth canal it canstart breathing and become independent of the mother’s circulation, so the umbilical cord is clamped and cut.
- Finally, the placenta and fetal membranes are detached from the mother and expelled (several minutes–1 hour)
Photosynthesis in noncyclic electron electron transport
Each photosystem consists of several chlorophyll and accessory pigment molecules
Complement each other, must be constantly absorbing light energy to power noncyclic electron transport
Path of sperm
- To achieve fertilization, sperm swim up the vagina, assisted by contractions of the female reproductive tract.
- The sperm then pass through the cervix and most of the oviduct to the egg (secondary oocyte) in the upper oviduct.
- Egg and sperm nucleus (both haploid) fuse to produce the diploid zygote.
Photosynthesis in noncyclic electron electron transport
Each photosystem consists of several chlorophyll and accessory pigment molecules
Complement each other, must be constantly absorbing light energy to power noncyclic electron transport
Allergy
Overactive or disproportionate immune system
Chemicals released
Anti histamine can be used (because histamine is the alarm)
Allergy
Overactive or disproportionate immune system
Chemicals released
Anti histamine can be used (because histamine is the alarm)
Peripheral membrane proteins
Lack exposed hydrophobic groups, do not penetrate bilayer (stay inside)
Bacteria
Unicellular prokaryotes
Total energy in any system
Total energy = usable energy + unusable energy
Enthalpy (H)= free energy (G) + entropy (S)
H= G + TS
Gastrulation
Gastrulation is the process in which a blastulais transformed into an embryo with three
tissue layers and body axes
Hemoglobin
Hemoglobin is a metal (iron) that is positively charged, and oxygen negatively charged, so they bind
Muscle cell
Excitable cell
Modified plasma membrane known as the sarcolemma
Gastrulation
Gastrulation is the process in which a blastulais transformed into an embryo with three
tissue layers and body axes
Amniocentesis
extraction of amnioticfluid with a needle, after the fourteenth week of pregnancy
Phospholipid movement in the bilayer
Lateral diffusion, flexing, and rotation but no flip flop
Action spectrum
Plot of biological activity as a function of exposure to varied wavelengths of light
Cyclic electron transport
Electron from excited P700 chlorophyll molecule n photosystem one cycles back to the same chlorophyll molecule
Involves a series of exergonic redox reactions, the released energy creates a proton gradient that is used to synthesize ATP
Fungi
Yeast is a unicellular form
Ex: athlete’s foot
Organization of the immune system
Nonspecific immune response- protects against foreign substances without having to recognize their identity
Specific immune response- highly specific, usually a major problem that your body is really trying to fight
Quaternary structure
Interaction of subunits by hydrophobic interactions, van der waals forces, ionic bonds, and hydrogen bonds
Each subunit has its own tertiary structure
Chlorophylls a and b
Ring structure with magnesium atom in center
Hydrocarbon tail which anchors them to integral proteins in the thylakoids membrane
Absorb in red and blue region
How does photosynthesis convert light energy to chemical energy?
Reaction center converts light energy to chemical energy
Excited chlorophyll a molecule (Chl*) is a reducing agent (electron donor)
A is an acceptor molecule (oxidizing agent)
Chl* + A –> Chl+ + A-
A is the first in a chain of electron carriers on the thylakoid membrane (electron transport) a series of redox reactions
Final electron acceptor is NADP+
NADP+ + e- –> NADPH + H+
Amniocentesis
extraction of amnioticfluid with a needle, after the fourteenth week of pregnancy
Macrophages in alveoli
Ward against foreign bodies, get rid of debris
Pathogens
Parasite
Bacteria
Protist
Fungi
Virus
Lipid composition in plasma membranes
Phospholipids vary- fatty acid chain length, degree of saturation, phosphate groups
Can be up to 25 percent cholesterol
Fluorescence
When a pigment returns to ground state some of the energy may be given off as heat and some as fluorescence
Fluorescence has longer wavelengths and less energy than the absorbed light energy
No chemical work done
If pigment can pass the energy to another molecule, there’s no fluorescence, the energy can be passed to a reaction center where it is converted to chemical energy
What Affects Hb-OxygenBinding?
Demands for oxygen changing depending on your state. (if sitting, cells in legs not picking up that much oxygen) so ATP production chants, and more ATP produced the more oxygen you get delivered. Waste products signify how much ATP you are making so your red blood cells know.
- BPG (2,3 Bisphosphoglyceric acid)- BPG by product of glycolysis- when increases, unload more oxygen.
- Temperature
- Acidity- lactic acid is byproduct of fermentation
Blastocoel
a central fluid-filled cavity that forms in the ball of cells
The embryo becomes a blastula and its cells are called blastomeres
Hyperpolarization
Membrane potential more negative than resting potential
Membrane of rod
When light shines at photoreceptor, the protein rhodopsin changes shape and activates, then transducin (protein) breaks off it’s complex and moves along the membrane to activate phosphodiesterase, triggering cGMP breakdown, so reduces cGMP level
How Are Gases Transported?
• Once in the blood, oxygen is transported in two ways
– 1.5% is dissolved in the plasma and cytosol of erythrocytes
– 98.5 % Bound to hemoglobin
Ingredients for photosynthesis
Co2 reduced to sugars that travel throughout the plant body
Water up taken by roots
Water and oxygen released
Resolution
Limiting factor in all microscopes, need high resolution to see detail
Cytotoxic T Cell
Release perform and granzymes
Induce apoptosis (Fas)
Attack cancer cells which stop mitosis regulation and keep dividing- they bond to these and release perforins that poke h ones in the membrane, eater can go in, releases granzymes in the hole or proteins that activate apoptosis
Chloroplasts
Sites where photosynthesis occurs, one type of plastid
Surrounded by two layers and have interal membrane system
Lysosomes
Vesicles containing digestive enzymes that come in part from the Golgi
Sites for breakdown of food and foreign material brought into the cell by phagocytosis
Detection of spent cellular components- autophagy- cell components are frequently destroyed and replaced with new ones
During gastrulation, three germ layers form
– The inner germ layer is the endoderm and gives rise to the digestive tract, circulatory tract, and respiratory tract.
– The outer layer, the ectoderm, gives rise to the epidermis and nervous system.
– The middle layer, the mesoderm, contributes to bone, muscle, liver, heart, and blood vessels
What properties of water make it so important in biology?
Polar molecule
Forms hydrogen bonds
Has tetrahedral shape
Organization of the immune system
Nonspecific immune response- protects against foreign substances without having to recognize their identity
Specific immune response- highly specific, usually a major problem that your body is really trying to fight
Path of sperm
- To achieve fertilization, sperm swim up the vagina, assisted by contractions of the female reproductive tract.
- The sperm then pass through the cervix and most of the oviduct to the egg (secondary oocyte) in the upper oviduct.
- Egg and sperm nucleus (both haploid) fuse to produce the diploid zygote.
Supraoptic nucleus
Makes vasopressin
Anti diuretic hormone,prevents water loss. Target organ is kidneys where we have water control
Chemoreceptors
Homeostatic mechanism: Chemoreceptors constantly measuring level of oxygen and co2, send signal through sensory nerve fibers
Need increased inspiration during exercise, or if holding breath (decrease oxygen availability and increase co2 availability)
• Peripheral
– Carotid bodies
– Aortic bodies
• Central- within nervous system, medulla oblongata
Repolarization
When a membrane potential has been depolarized or hyperpolarized and returns to its resting value
Polar covalent bond
One atom has more electronegativity
Macrophages in alveoli
Ward against foreign bodies, get rid of debris
Heart beat
The closing of one set of valves after another
Depolarization
Membrane potential is less negative an resting potential
Photosynthetic prokaryotes
Some bacteria, including Cyanobacteria can do carry on photosynthesis
Plasma membrane is unfolded and has chlorophyll
Inner cell mass
• The inner cell mass of the blastocyst splits into an epiblast and hypoblast with a fluid-filled cavity in
between (just like the reptilian and avian gastrula).
- The embryo forms from the epiblast.
- The epiblast also splits off a layer of cells that form the amnion. The amnion grows around the developing embryo.
- The hypoblast cells extend to form the chorion. Thechorion and other tissues produce the placenta.
- The epiblast produces the amnion. Allantoic tissues form the umbilical cord.
Myeloid progenitor cells
Blood/platelets or immune cells produced
Types of immune cells:
Granular cells- neutrophils, mast cells
agranular cells- monocytes, macrophages,
Mechanisms of Valve Action
Shaped to prevent the back flow of blood
trophoblast
- In mammals, the first extraembryonic membrane to form is the trophoblast.
- When the blastocyst hatches from the zona pellucida, the trophoblast cells attach to the uterine wall, This is the beginning of implantation.
- The trophoblast becomes part of the uterine wall, and sends out villi to increase surface area and contact with maternal blood.
Blood
Made of cellular components, erythrocytes(red blood cells, carry oxygen), leukocytes, and platelets (minimize blood loss and promote blood plotting) suspended in a plasma fluid
Plasma contains water and proteins (hormones, ions, glucose, amino acids etc)
Only fluid like connective tissue, 90% water. Fluid and cellular component
Chemical structure of hormones
- Hormones can be made of steroids or peptides
- Their synthesis and secretion vary
- Their chemical structure determines their mechanisms of action on target cells
Starch
Storage of glucose in plants
Branched
The Stomach
- Located between the esophagus and the small intestine
- Starts the digestion of proteins, constantly mixing the food to mix it with enzymes and secretions
- Functions in gastric mixing and gastric emptying
- Large temporary storage area
- Top gastroesophagael sphincter and bottom pyloric sphincter that slowly allows food into the duodenum
Photosynthesis in noncyclic electron electron transport
Each photosystem consists of several chlorophyll and accessory pigment molecules
Complement each other, must be constantly absorbing light energy to power noncyclic electron transport
Boyle’s law
Pressure and volume are inversely proportiona
Gases in a container, when volume decreased, pressure increases due to collision of gas molecules and now these gas molecules are confined to a smaller place, so more bombardment
Lungs are always changing in volume so the pressure changes as well with inspiration and expiration
Chemoreceptors
Homeostatic mechanism: Chemoreceptors constantly measuring level of oxygen and co2, send signal through sensory nerve fibers
Need increased inspiration during exercise, or if holding breath (decrease oxygen availability and increase co2 availability)
• Peripheral
– Carotid bodies
– Aortic bodies
• Central- within nervous system, medulla oblongata
The Stomach
- Located between the esophagus and the small intestine
- Starts the digestion of proteins, constantly mixing the food to mix it with enzymes and secretions
- Functions in gastric mixing and gastric emptying
- Large temporary storage area
- Top gastroesophagael sphincter and bottom pyloric sphincter that slowly allows food into the duodenum
Stoma
Mouth of plant
Co2 enters and O2/water exit through these pores
Components of the cytoskeleton
Microfilaments
Intermediate filaments
Microtubules
Phagocytic cell migration
- The cytokines released by macrophages signal the endothelial cells to express selectin
- Margination occurs- dock and fuse with membrane, carbohydrate ligands on macrophages bind to selectin in blood vessel, move in blood vessel by rolling
- Phagocytic cells produce integrin on their membrane
- Stronger attachment occurs- immune cells are allowed to slow down and exit
- Phagocytic cells begin to move from the blood to the infected area in a process known as diapedisis
- Once in the interstitial fluid, phagocytic cells are attracted to the site of injury by chemotaxins- tell phagocytic cells exactly where to go
Viagra
first introduced for heart problems, sexual excitation, want blood to flow to the penis faster than it flows out, need dilation of blood vessels which requires neurotransmitter nitrous oxide, produces a dilation of the blood vessels. If excessive production of phosphodiesterase, it breaks down nitrous oxide. But Viagra inhibits phosphodiesterase, that can cause problems with vision and the breakdown of cyclic gmp
Equilibrium
Particles continue to move but there is no net change in distribution
Net movement is directional until equilibrium is reached
Allergy
Overactive or disproportionate immune system
Chemicals released
Anti histamine can be used (because histamine is the alarm)
Chromatin
Diffuse or long thin fibers in which DNA is bound to proteins
Prior to cell division these condense and form chromosomes
CO2 fixation
CO2 is reduced to carbohydrates
Enzymes in the stroma use the energy in ATP and NADPH to reduce CO2
Because the ATP and NADPH are not “stockpiled,” these light independent reactions must also take place in light
Gastric Mucosa
• Mucosa cells
– Release mucus, watery solution with salt ions, basic chemicals to neutralize acid and make it less harmful to stomach
• Chief cells
– Release pepsinogen, enzyme that can break down proteins but it’s not activated, needs highly acidic environment
• Parietal cells
– Release HCl, and Intrinsic factor (absorption of vitamins, B12)
Blastocyst
When blastula reaches 16 to 32 cells, it divides into two groups:
- Inner cell mass: becomes the embryo
- Trophoblast: a sac that forms from the outer cells. Its cells secrete fluid and create the blastocoel, with the inner cell mass at one end. Embryo is now called a blastocyst.
G3P
Gylceraldehyde 3 phosphate
5/6 recycled into RuBP
1/6 converted to starch and sucrose to make glucose and fructose
Photosynthesis
“synthesis from light”
Plants take in CO2, produce carbohydrates, and release O2 and water
Light is required
6CO2 + 12H2O–> C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O
Fertilization
Fertilization is the union of haploid sperm and haploid egg to produce a single diploid cell, the zygote
Phagocytosis
Food molecules enter the cell through a formed phagosome
Steps in neurulation
- The ectoderm over the notochord thickens and forms the neural plate.
- Edges of the neural plate fold and a deep groove forms.
- The folds fuse, forming the neural tube and a layer of ectoderm, The anterior end of the neural tube becomes the brain, the rest becomes the spinal cord
Vasodilation & Increased Permeability
• Histamine causes vasodilation
– increases diameter, Increase in blood flow to infected area
– Redness occurs
– Increase delivery of proteins
– Edema occurs- swelling, fluid from blood cells into interstitial tissue
- increased permeability- proteins gain entry from blood to interstitial fluid
- objective- get more immune cells
Cytotoxic T Cell
Release perform and granzymes
Induce apoptosis (Fas)
Attack cancer cells which stop mitosis regulation and keep dividing- they bond to these and release perforins that poke h ones in the membrane, eater can go in, releases granzymes in the hole or proteins that activate apoptosis
Cytotoxic T Cell
Release perform and granzymes
Induce apoptosis (Fas)
Attack cancer cells which stop mitosis regulation and keep dividing- they bond to these and release perforins that poke h ones in the membrane, eater can go in, releases granzymes in the hole or proteins that activate apoptosis
Branching of the airways
Conducting zone: trachea, primary bronchi, secondary bronchi, tertiary bronchi, bronchioles
Respiratory zone: respiratory bronchioles, alveoli (each alveolus is covered with many capillaries to facilitate the exchange of materials)
Chromatin
Diffuse or long thin fibers in which DNA is bound to proteins
Prior to cell division these condense and form chromosomes
Blastocyst
When blastula reaches 16 to 32 cells, it divides into two groups:
- Inner cell mass: becomes the embryo
- Trophoblast: a sac that forms from the outer cells. Its cells secrete fluid and create the blastocoel, with the inner cell mass at one end. Embryo is now called a blastocyst.
Chlorophylls a and b
Ring structure with magnesium atom in center
Hydrocarbon tail which anchors them to integral proteins in the thylakoids membrane
Absorb in red and blue region
Somites
separate, segmented blocks of cells on either side of the neural tube.
Muscle, cartilage, bone, and lower layer of the skin form from somites.
Neural crest cells are guided by somites to develop into peripheral nerves and other structures
Endotherm in heat
Sweat and vasal dilation in heat, metabolic reaction
Body temperature remains the same even though it is getting hotter
epididymis
- From the lumen of the seminiferous tubules, sperm move to the epididymis, a storage sac, where theymature.
- The epididymis connects to the urethra via the vas deferens
Mixed endocrine glands
Thymus, heart, stomach, kidneys, and small intestine
Stroma
Fluid in which grana are suspended in chloroplasts
Saccharides
Simple sugars, monomers of carbohydrates
Di- 2
Oligo- 3-20
Poly- hundreds of thousands
What Affects Hb-OxygenBinding?
Demands for oxygen changing depending on your state. (if sitting, cells in legs not picking up that much oxygen) so ATP production chants, and more ATP produced the more oxygen you get delivered. Waste products signify how much ATP you are making so your red blood cells know.
- BPG (2,3 Bisphosphoglyceric acid)- BPG by product of glycolysis- when increases, unload more oxygen.
- Temperature
- Acidity- lactic acid is byproduct of fermentation
Reversible inhibition
Inhibitor bonds noncovalently to the active site and prevents subtrate from binding- competitive inhibitor
When concentration of inhibitor is reduced it detaches from the active site
Electroreceptors
Perceives natural electrical stimuli
AP Step 6
Membrane hyperpolarizes and refractory period occurs
VGPC starts to close, but closes too slowly (around -80) so it dips below threshold
Allergy
Overactive or disproportionate immune system
Chemicals released
Anti histamine can be used (because histamine is the alarm)
Photophosphorylation
Light driven production of ATP
H+ transported via electron carriers across the thylakoid membrane from the stroma into the lumen, creating an electrochemical gradient
Complement system
Pore formation: First complement protein (inactive), cascade of protein activation in bacterial cell
Swelling: fluid rushes into cells
Lysis
Ingredients for photosynthesis
Co2 reduced to sugars that travel throughout the plant body
Water up taken by roots
Water and oxygen released
Pulmonary trunk
Takes deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the lungs
Very big, can see with naked eye.
Splits, and goes to two lungs
Transmural pressure
The pressure difference between two membranes
Calvin cycle stimulated by light
Protons pumped form stroma into thylakoids, increasing the pH which favors the activation of rubisco
Electron flow from photosystem one reduces disulfide bonds to activate calvin cycle enzymes
Induced fit
Enzyes change shape when they bind to the substrate
First trimester
embryo becomes a fetus
Heart begins to beat by week 4
Limbs form by week 8
The first trimester is the period during which the fetus is most susceptible to damage from radiation, drugs, chemicals, and agents that cause birth defects.
The hormone hCG (human chorionic gonadotropin) is released after implantation and is an early indicator of pregnancy
Ventricular diastole
heart is in relaxed state and ventricles are filling up its blood coming from the left and right atrium
Blood aided by gravity (80%) before atria even contracts
Aortic and pulmonary valves are closed
Bicuspid and tricuspid valves are open
Isotonic solution
Equal water and solute concentration
Lipids absorption
- Can easily permeate through the plasma membrane, tightly controlled so it doesn’t pass freely, bile salt packages glycerol and fatty acids into micelles - lipoprotein vehicle that is hydrophilic on the outside and hydrophobic on the inside, allows it to move into the small intestine cells
- Once micelles approach the apical side of the epithelial cell membrane, the glycerol and fatty acid passively diffuse into the cell
- The glycerol and fatty acid are then resynthesized into triglycerides and packaged into a lipoprotein known as chylomicrons- large vesicles that cannot fit into the capillaries, does not go into the blood immediately
- Chylomicrons are then exocytosed into the lymphatic system which has fluid in its own circulation and vessels that are more permeable, eventually drain into superior vena cava and ends up in circulation, liver sorts and ships these lipids
TSH
Thyroid stimulating hormone
Increases rate of metabolism
Target cell: thyroid gland
Fluid mosaic model
General structure of membranes
Phospholipids form a bilayer which is like a lakes which proteins float
Barriers to infection
Physical barriers
Chemical barriers
Reflexes
Red eye
A lot of light goes into eye because pupils cannot dilate in time, some light is refracted back
Parts of the respiratory system
Nasal/oral cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, primary/secondary/tertiary bronchus, bronchioles (if you don’t need a lot of oxygen bronchioles are slightly constricted), alveoli (site of exchange)
All made of cartilage up to the trachea
The immune system
Protects against infection and microbes
Isolates and removes non microbial foreign substances
Endotherm
All mammals and birds regulate body temperature by generating metabolic heatand/or preventing heat loss
Light independent reactions
“dark reactions”
Use ATP and NADH from light reactions plus CO2 to produce carbohydrates (because coenzymes ATP and NADH are not stored, need light for light reaction first)
Chlorophylls a and b
Ring structure with magnesium atom in center
Hydrocarbon tail which anchors them to integral proteins in the thylakoids membrane
Absorb in red and blue region
Two functions of DNA
Can reproduce itself (replication)
Can copy its information into RNA (transcription), RNA can specify a sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide (translation)
Nonspecific immunity
Prevention
Attack- if it gets in the circulatory system
Dunedin
Microtubules cross linked by the spokes of this motor protein
Changes shape when energy is released from ATP, move vesicles toward minus end
Ovarian cycle steps
1- primary oocytes (2n) are present in the ovary at birth
2- about once a month, between puberty and menopause, 6-12 primary oocytes begin to mature. A primary oocyte and it’s surrounding cells is called a follicle
3- the developing oocyte is nourished by follicle cells which also produce estrogen
4- after one week, usually only one primary oocyte begins to develop. A meiotic division just before ovulation creates the secondary oocyte (n). First polar body
5- at ovulation on the 14th day, the follicle ruptures and releases the egg which is caught by the Fallopian t uses
6- remaining follicle cells create the corpus lutenum, which produces progesterone and estrogen
7-if pregnancy does not occur, the corpus lutenum degenerates
How do atoms bond to form molecules
Reactive atoms have unpaired electrons in their outermost shell, atoms share, gain, or lose electrons
Z scheme
Model of noncyclic electron transport
Extracts electrons from water and transfers them to NADPH, using energy from photosynthesis one and two and resulting in ATP synthesis
Yields ATP, NADPH, and O2
Cyclic electron transport
Electron from excited P700 chlorophyll molecule n photosystem one cycles back to the same chlorophyll molecule
Involves a series of exergonic redox reactions, the released energy creates a proton gradient that is used to synthesize ATP
Barriers to infection
Physical barriers
Chemical barriers
Reflexes
How are neurons classified?
Function- sensory, interneurons, motor neurons
Structure- multipolar, bipolar, unipolar
Chemical equilibrium
Relative concentrations of A and B are such that forward and reverse reactions take place at the same rate
No further net change, but reactions continue
The further a reaction goes toward completion in order to reach equilibrium, the greater amount of free energy released
Double helix
Two strands of DNA molecule form this
All have this structure so diversity is in the sequence of base pairs, info encoded in this sequence
Parasite
Any organism that invades and lives by the expense of another body
Most are animals, either micro or macroscopic
Infects muscles and digestive system takes blood (muscles) and nutrients (liver)
CO2 fixation
CO2 is reduced to carbohydrates
Enzymes in the stroma use the energy in ATP and NADPH to reduce CO2
Because the ATP and NADPH are not “stockpiled,” these light independent reactions must also take place in light
Phagocytosis
Attatchment (opsonization)- Physically bind to pathogen
Internalization, turns into phagosome
Degradation- Fuses with lysosome and becomes phagolysosome, and after the digestive enzymes can be reused
Exocytosis- elimination of debris
Selective permeability
Membranes allow some substances to pass through but not others
Fatty acid
Non polar hydrocarbon with a polar carboxyl group
Ampipathic- opposing chemical properties, when carboxyl group ionizes it forms COO- and H+ and is hydrophilic while the other end is hydrophobic
Compliance
Ability to change volume and pressure
Balloon is like the lungs- highly compliant
Paper bag- not compliant
How do arteries move blood?
Arteries have high pressure, and blood aided by gravity so blood can reach far such as feet
Photophosphorylation
Light driven production of ATP
H+ transported via electron carriers across the thylakoid membrane from the stroma into the lumen, creating an electrochemical gradient
Blastocyst
When blastula reaches 16 to 32 cells, it divides into two groups:
- Inner cell mass: becomes the embryo
- Trophoblast: a sac that forms from the outer cells. Its cells secrete fluid and create the blastocoel, with the inner cell mass at one end. Embryo is now called a blastocyst.
Focusing on distant objects
Ciliary muscles are attached in a circular way, so when they are relaxed the lens is stretched
This pulls zonular fibers
Lens is elongated and flat to focus on distant objects
Barriers to infection
Physical barriers
Chemical barriers
Reflexes
Hypothalamus and anterior pituitary
• The hypothalamus controls the anterior pituitary by secreting hypophysiotropic hormones (releasing hormones)
– Dopamine (DA)
– Gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH)
– Thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH)
– Corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH)
– Growth hormone releasing hormone (GHRH)– Somatostatin (SS)
How do veins move blood?
low pressure because at the end of that circuit, hold the majority of blood, and if the blood is going back up it is working against gravity, dead on skeletal muscles
Skeletal muscle pump- veins are in between muscles and contraction pumps blood, valves in veins prevent blood from coming back down when muscles relax
Centrioles
Made of microtubules
Fund in organizing center near the cell nucleus
Similar to basal bodies, but in center of call and help in movement of chromosomes during cell division
Peristaltic contraction
Unidirectional movement of food through the stomach
Myeloid progenitor cells
Blood/platelets or immune cells produced
Types of immune cells:
Granular cells- neutrophils, mast cells
agranular cells- monocytes, macrophages,
GnRH
Gonadotropin releasing hormone
Stimulates release of FSH/LH
Cellular respiration
Production of ATP
Pressure change
Breathing associated with skeletal muscles that are constantly contracting and relaxing, gases are quantified by pressur
Atmospheric pressure (Patm)- pressure on the outside in the environment
Alveolar pressure (Palv)-pressure inside your lungs
Intrapleural pressure (Pip)- pressure in pleural sac, fills up with fluid that exerts pressure
Alveolar and interpleural pressure are constantly fluctuating because they depend on your state
Absorption spectrum
Plot of wavelengths absorbed by a pigment
Steps of fertilization
– The sperm and egg recognize each other.
– The sperm is activated so that it can gain access to the plasma membrane of the egg.
– The plasma membranes of the sperm and egg fuse.
– The egg blocks entry of additional sperm.
– The egg is stimulated to start development.
– The egg and sperm nuclei fuse
The female reproductive cycle actually consists of two linked cycles:
an ovarian cycle that produces eggs and hormones and a uterine cycle that prepares the endometrium for the arrival of a blastocyst
Glycoproteins
Carbohydrate and protein
Smooth ER
Ribosome free region
Mechanisms of peptide action
Peptide- hydrophillic, so receptor in membrane because it cannot permeate inside the cell
When receptor bound to hormone become activated, associates with/activates membrane communication protein called g protein made of multiple subunits
alpha subunit moves along membrane and activates adenylyl cyclase and coverts a molecule in into cyclic AMP
triggers a cascade of activation in proteins (protein kinase A activated, particular protein phosphorylates and changes shape protein shape and function altered, brings about cellular reponse)
A lot quicker but local changes
Mitochondrial matrix
Region enclosed by inner membrane
Krebs or citric acid cycle takes place here
epididymis
- From the lumen of the seminiferous tubules, sperm move to the epididymis, a storage sac, where theymature.
- The epididymis connects to the urethra via the vas deferens
Covalent bonds
Atoms share one or more electrons so that the outer shells are filled
Air composition
78.1% nitrogen (goes into lungs and leaves), 20.9% oxygen
Total atmospheric pressure= 760 mmHg (Pressure= concentration)- Patm = PN2 + PO2
Temperature and altitude changes atmospheric pressure
Partial pressure of N2 = 760 mmHg x 0.781 ~ 600 mmHg
Partial pressure of O2 = 760 mmHg x 0.21 ~ 160mmHg
We breathe very easily, so partial pressure in lungs should be lower, so process of diffusion is easy. 100 mm mercury
Action spectrum
Plot of biological activity as a function of exposure to varied wavelengths of light
Renal system
Proteins help make energy only in very bad situation, but protein metabolism generates urea which is toxic, excreted through renal system (kidneys)
Nuclear envelope
Formed by two lipid bilayers
Processes in Calvin Benson cycle
Fixation of CO2 by combination with RuBP (catalyzes by rubisco)
Conversion of fixed CO2 into carbohydrate G3P (using ATP and NADPH)
Regeneration of CO2 acceptor RuBP by ATP
Macromolecules crossing membranes
Too large to cross the membrane, so they can be taken in or secreted by membrane vesicles
uterine cycle
- The uterine cycle parallels the ovarian cycle and involves the buildup, then breakdown, of the endometrium.
- About five days into the ovarian cycle, the endometrium builds in preparation for the blastocyst.
- About five days after ovulation, the uterus is maximally prepared and stays that way for another nine days.
- If the blastocyst does not arrive by then, the endometrium breaks down and sloughs off during menstruation.
Morula
the embryo as a solid ball ofsmall cells. (from Latin for mulberry)
Thylakoids
The way internal membranes are arranged in chloroplasts, thylakoids make stacks called grana
These membranes contain chlorophyll and other pigments
Physical barriers
Skin- brick layers of cells, most pathogens can’t get through it, also produces a hard and fibrous protein called keratin. The closest layer to the surface has the highest amount of keratin- the outermost layer of skin is dead, it produced too much keratin to function
Fibrous layer of the eyes
Mucous membrane of the respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive systems, and ear- thick membrane that prevents pathogens from getting into the circulation
Cilia
Lobes of the brain
Frontal Parietal Temporal Occipital Cerebellum
AP step 1
At rest both VGSC and VGPC are closed, but you still have the leak channels and the pump
Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis
Hypothalamus- releases CRH, is always in control by measuring the amount of cortisol, if levels are below the set point, mechanism is turned on to increase cortisol
Anterior pituitary- acted on by hypothalamus, stimulates release of ACTH, travels in circulation
Adrenal cortex- stimulated to release another hormone called cortisol which helps our body deal with long term stress (external factor that causes major changes in your body) body thinks starvation is happening and there is not enough energy, so cortisols major function is to make sure your brain is well protected and that it had adequate amount of energy available
Increases plasma concentration of glucose (for the use of the brain, muscles can’t use it) fatty acids, and amino acids (for the muscles as an energy replacement for glucose)
Right and left ventricle
pumping chambers, physically contracting to make the blood exit (simultaneously in both circuits)
The immune system
Protects against infection and microbes
Isolates and removes non microbial foreign substances
Thylakoids
The way internal membranes are arranged in chloroplasts, thylakoids make stacks called grana
These membranes contain chlorophyll and other pigments
Polymers
Formed by covalent linkages of smaller units called monomers
Connection between lungs and circulatory system
Closed connection between heart and lungs because lungs are the site for oxygen intake, circulatory picks up oxygen from lungs and delivers it to cells with heart as intermediate
Pathogens
Parasite
Bacteria
Protist
Fungi
Virus
Compartmentalization in eukaryotic cells
Key to eukaryotic cell function
Each organelle/ compartment has specific role defined by chemical processes
Membranes surrounding these molecules keep away inappropriate molecules and also act as traffic regulators for raw materials into and out of the organelle
CO2 fixation
CO2 is reduced to carbohydrates
Enzymes in the stroma use the energy in ATP and NADPH to reduce CO2
Because the ATP and NADPH are not “stockpiled,” these light independent reactions must also take place in light
Spina bifida
failure of the neural tube to fuse in a posterior region dueto vitamin B deficiency
Compartmentalization in eukaryotic cells
Key to eukaryotic cell function
Each organelle/ compartment has specific role defined by chemical processes
Membranes surrounding these molecules keep away inappropriate molecules and also act as traffic regulators for raw materials into and out of the organelle
Pressure and Volume Change
During inspiration the volume of the lungs increases and the pressure decreases- atmospheric pressure is higher than alveolar pressure, and diffusion can occur
During expiration, the volume of the lungs decreases and the pressure increases- alveolar pressure becomes higher than atmospheric pressure- diffusion outwards
Blastomere
- Blastomeres become determined, or committed toa specific fate, at different times in different animals.
- Roundworm and clam blastomeres are already determined at the 8-cell stage.
- If one cell is removed, a portion of the embryo fails to develop normally. This is called mosaic development.
- Humans have regulative development. If some cells are lost during cleavage, other cells can compensate. For genetic testing in humans, one cell can be removed from a blastula following in vitro fertilization. If there are no mutations in the gene of interest, that blastula can be implanted
Accessory Digestive Organs
Food does not get to them but there is important secretion
• Salivary glands – Sublingual (under tongue), submandibular (under mandible), parotid (gland by ear • Pancreas • Liver • Gallbladder
Parts of the respiratory system
Nasal/oral cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, primary/secondary/tertiary bronchus, bronchioles (if you don’t need a lot of oxygen bronchioles are slightly constricted), alveoli (site of exchange)
All made of cartilage up to the trachea
Gated channels
Can be closed or open to ion passage, most ion channels are gated
Gate opens when protein is stimulated to change shape
Stimulus can be molecule (ligand gated) or electrical charge resulting from many ions (voltage gated)
Macrophages in alveoli
Ward against foreign bodies, get rid of debris
Absorption spectrum
Plot of wavelengths absorbed by a pigment
DNA bases
Adenine/guanine = purines
Cytocine/thymine = pyrimidines
A-T and C-G, bond by hydrogen bonding
Connect of artery to vein
Artery, arteriole, capillaries, venue, vein
The pancreas
- Mixed gland that contain both endocrine and exocrine tissue
- The exocrine tissue contains two types of cells
- Duct cells secrete NaHCO3 and Bicarbonate release to neutralize acid
- Acina cells secrete pancreatic juice- Mixture of enzymes that are produced from pancreas
Myeloid progenitor cells
Blood/platelets or immune cells produced
Types of immune cells:
Granular cells- neutrophils, mast cells
agranular cells- monocytes, macrophages,
Gestation
pregnancy
in humans is about 266 days and is divided into trimesters
Blastomere
- Blastomeres become determined, or committed toa specific fate, at different times in different animals.
- Roundworm and clam blastomeres are already determined at the 8-cell stage.
- If one cell is removed, a portion of the embryo fails to develop normally. This is called mosaic development.
- Humans have regulative development. If some cells are lost during cleavage, other cells can compensate. For genetic testing in humans, one cell can be removed from a blastula following in vitro fertilization. If there are no mutations in the gene of interest, that blastula can be implanted
Catalysts
Speed up rate of reaction
Not altered by the reaction
Most biological catalysts are enzymes that act as a framework in which reactions can take place
No catalyst maks a reaction occur that cannot otherwise occur
Oogenesis steps
Female germ cell (2n)
Mitosis
Oogonium (2n)
Mitosis
Primary oocyte (2n)
First meiotic division
Secondary oocyte (n) and first polar body
Second meiotic division, independent assortment of chromosomes
Ootid (n) and second polar body
Ovum (egg) (n), polar bodies degrade
Calvin cycle stimulated by light
Protons pumped form stroma into thylakoids, increasing the pH which favors the activation of rubisco
Electron flow from photosystem one reduces disulfide bonds to activate calvin cycle enzymes
Lymphoid tissues
Adenoids, tonsils, thymus, lymph noes, spleen, bone marrow, lymphatic vessels
Immune cells originate here, majorly from bone marrow
immune cells are scattered all over, but they are clustered in certain areas in case of infection
Fungi
Yeast is a unicellular form
Ex: athlete’s foot
Photosynthetic prokaryotes
Some bacteria, including Cyanobacteria can do carry on photosynthesis
Plasma membrane is unfolded and has chlorophyll
Neural pathway of hearing
Cochlear nerve fibers synapse on neurons in the cochlear nuclei in the medulla oblongata
Signal then sent to the thalamus (medial geniculate nucleus)
From thalamus, info travels to the auditory cortex of the temporal lobe
Most common phospholipids
Derived from glycerol except for sphingomylein
Two systems of electron transport
Non cyclic electron transport- produces NADPH and ATP
Cyclic electron transport- produces ATP only
- when you need more sugar you need more ATP than NADH, so cyclic transport is needed
The immune system
Protects against infection and microbes
Isolates and removes non microbial foreign substances
Non polar covalent bond
Share electrons equally
Immunization
Series of shots
MMR- immunization shot against meals, mumps, rubella
Small quantity of pathogens to build immune response, memory cells to speed up recovery next time
Ruben and kamen
Used radioisotope tracers (O18 and O16) to determine that water was the source of O2 released during photosynthesis rather than CO2
Glucose
Monosaccharide
All cells use it as an energy source
Exists most often in a ring as alpha or beta glucose depending on position of the aldehyde group (can also be found in a chain)
Kinesin
Motor protein, moves toward plus end
CO2 fixation
CO2 is reduced to carbohydrates
Enzymes in the stroma use the energy in ATP and NADPH to reduce CO2
Because the ATP and NADPH are not “stockpiled,” these light independent reactions must also take place in light
Lungs and the mechanisms of the chest
Easy, effortless to breath because of the mechanics of the lungs- always slightly inflated to make inspiration easier
Lungs attached to chest wall and inner layer of your rib cage by very thin set of membranes called a pleural sac
Ribs protect your lungs and work in synchrony with them, chest expands and increase in volume along with your lungs
The endocrine system
- Major communication system
- Consists of many glands located throughout the body
- Glands secrete hormones that act as chemical messengers
- Uses the blood as a medium to transport the hormones
- Each hormone has specific target cells
- Hormonal mechanisms can help us maintain homeostasis
The liver
• Hepatocytes of the liver release bile salts that functions in fat emulsification, hydrophobic lipids aggregate together, lipase cannot do its function without bile to emulsify the fat
– The break down of large fat droplets into smaller ones
• Bile salts are stored in the gall bladder
Action spectrum
Plot of biological activity as a function of exposure to varied wavelengths of light
Vacuoles
In plant and protist cells
Store waste products and toxic compounds; some may deter herbivores
Provides structure for plant cells, water enters by osmosis and creates turbot pressure
Stores anthocyanins(pigment) in flowers/fruit to attract pollinators
Digestive enzymes to hydrolyze stored food for early growth
Amniocentesis
extraction of amnioticfluid with a needle, after the fourteenth week of pregnancy
Phagocytic cell migration
- The cytokines released by macrophages signal the endothelial cells to express selectin
- Margination occurs- dock and fuse with membrane, carbohydrate ligands on macrophages bind to selectin in blood vessel, move in blood vessel by rolling
- Phagocytic cells produce integrin on their membrane
- Stronger attachment occurs- immune cells are allowed to slow down and exit
- Phagocytic cells begin to move from the blood to the infected area in a process known as diapedisis
- Once in the interstitial fluid, phagocytic cells are attracted to the site of injury by chemotaxins- tell phagocytic cells exactly where to go
Lymphoid progenitor cells
Form into B lymphocytes, T lymphocytes
Nonspecific immunity
Prevention
Attack- if it gets in the circulatory system
Turgor pressure
Plant cells with rigid walls build up internal pressure that keeps more water from entering
Inner cell mass
• The inner cell mass of the blastocyst splits into an epiblast and hypoblast with a fluid-filled cavity in
between (just like the reptilian and avian gastrula).
- The embryo forms from the epiblast.
- The epiblast also splits off a layer of cells that form the amnion. The amnion grows around the developing embryo.
- The hypoblast cells extend to form the chorion. Thechorion and other tissues produce the placenta.
- The epiblast produces the amnion. Allantoic tissues form the umbilical cord.
Nucleus
Contains most of the cells DNA and is the site of DNA duplication to support cell reproduction
Plays role in DNA control of cell activities
Flagella
Come in ones and twos, longer than cilia
Nodes of ranvier
Gaps in myelin sheaths along the axon
Protist
Uni or multicellular, contaminate lakes and drinking water to invade host
Monosaccharide absorption
- Glucose and galactose are absorbed by secondary active transport, takes glucose independent of concentration from the lumen to the inside of the epithelial cells
- They leave the cells into the plasma (blood vessels)via carrier proteins passively by facilitated diffusion, majority stored in liver and muscles
Mast cells
- Mast cells are found throughout connective tissues (not found in blood)
- They release histamine and other chemicals involved in inflammation
Microcirculation
Traveling of arterioles to capillaries to venules
Cells are taking the oxygen and glucose and dumping co2 by process of diffusion
Gastrulation
Gastrulation is the process in which a blastulais transformed into an embryo with three
tissue layers and body axes
Extracellular destruction: complement
• Membrane Attack Complex (MAC)
– Embeds itself in the microbe membrane, forming pores
– Water and salt enter the microbe
Proteins released by liver to do the job: complement system
Nucleus
Contains most of the cells DNA and is the site of DNA duplication to support cell reproduction
Plays role in DNA control of cell activities
Myeloid progenitor cells
Blood/platelets or immune cells produced
Types of immune cells:
Granular cells- neutrophils, mast cells
agranular cells- monocytes, macrophages,
Air composition
78.1% nitrogen (goes into lungs and leaves), 20.9% oxygen
Total atmospheric pressure= 760 mmHg (Pressure= concentration)- Patm = PN2 + PO2
Temperature and altitude changes atmospheric pressure
Partial pressure of N2 = 760 mmHg x 0.781 ~ 600 mmHg
Partial pressure of O2 = 760 mmHg x 0.21 ~ 160mmHg
We breathe very easily, so partial pressure in lungs should be lower, so process of diffusion is easy. 100 mm mercury
Pacemaker cells
- Sinoatrial node (SA) located in the right atrium
- Atrioventricular node (AV) located on the interatrial septum
- Bundle of His: located on the interventicular septum
- Bundle branches
- Purkinje fibers: located on the ventricular walls
Gestation
pregnancy
in humans is about 266 days and is divided into trimesters
Light
A form of electromagnetic radiation
Propagated as waves, energy of light is inversely proportional to wavelength (must be appropriate wavelength to be absorbed by receptive molecules
Light also behaves as particles called photons, plants absorb these
Tertiary structure
Many bonds: Covalent disulfide bridges Hydrophobic side chain interactions Van der waals forces Ionic bonds Hydrogen bonds
Protist
Uni or multicellular, contaminate lakes and drinking water to invade host
Nonspecific Immune response/inflammation
• Occurs through cut or injury to the skin
• Sequence of events ensue to protect the body against infection
– Phagocytosis and recruitment
– Vasodilation and increase in permeability
– Phagocytic cells migration
– Tissue repair
Isotonic solution
Equal water and solute concentration
Macromolecules
Giant polymers, molecular weight usually greater than 1000 daltons
All form through condensation reactions where water is removed during bond formation
Control of breathing
Voluntary until it becomes physiologically dangerous, your brain will force you to breathe.
• Inspiration is initiated by stimulating the respiratory muscles
– Diaphragm and external intercostals
• The stimulation is initiated in the medullary centers and the pons
Medulla oblongata sends signal to spinal cord, phrenic nerve sends action potential to diaphragm. 100% controlled by brain unless you voluntarily change it, stimulation always occurring. Neurons called central patter generator, send action potentials then they stop, perfectly synced on/off mechanism
Pinocytosis
“cell drinking”
Vesicles for,s to bring small dissolved substances or fluids into a cell, much smaller vesicles than in phagocytosis
Constant in endothelial cells
Movement from capillaries into interstitial fluid
Small things such as ions, glucose, amino acids can move through slits
Small proteins need to move by transcytosis (endo and exo cytosis)
Large proteins cannot get through
Accommodation
Changing the shape of the lens
Ciliary muscles allow objects to be focused onto the retina no matter how near or distant they are, light rays need to fall on the retina
Lens can change shape
Energy transfer and electron transport
Light energy absorbed by antenna chlorophylls, and passed on to reaction center
Molecule goes to excited state
Energized electron from chlorophyll molecules passed to electron acceptor to reduce it
Phagocytosis & Recruitment
- Macrophages in the nearby tissue detect bacteria using receptor proteins to engulf them
- Macrophages release cytokines- chemicals for recruitment
- Mast cells release histamine- causes vasodilation
- Injured cells release chemotaxins- chemo attractants to attract immune cells
Microbes
Harmful substances, living or dead
Spina bifida
failure of the neural tube to fuse in a posterior region dueto vitamin B deficiency
Hypertonic solution
Higher solute concentration
Specific Recognition Between Sperm and Egg
- Specific recognition molecules mediate interactions between sperm and eggs.
- This ensures that activities of the sperm are directed toward eggs and not other cells and prevents eggs from being fertilized by sperm of the wrong species.
- This latter function is particularly importantin aquatic species, such as sea urchins, that release sperm and eggs into the surrounding water.
Functions of the nervous system
Recieves information, processes information, outputs information
Arrangement of microtubules in flagella and cilia
9+2 array- 9 pairs and 2 individual microtubules in center
At the base of flagella and cilia is the nasal body, the 9 rings extend there
Electron microscope
Use electromagnets to focus an electron beam, wavelength is much shorter than light so much higher resolution .5 nm
Limit of resolution
.61 x wavelength / NA
NA= refractive index x sine of angle of most oblique ray
Oogenesis
- Oogenesis produces eggs.
- Individual egg maturation can be arrested for months, or for as long as 10 (puberty) to 50 (menopause) years in humans!
- During this phase, the primary oocyte grows and addsto its energy, ribosome, and organelle stores. This tpermits the resulting embryo to have nourishment.
Proteins
Polymers of amino acids, each has different AA composition and order
Folding is crucial to the function of a protein, influenced by the AA sequence
Where are these microorganisms?
They like moisture, food particles, want to get in blood vessels (from there they can travel all over the body)
Alveolar type I cells
form the wall of the alveoli
Transmural pressure
The pressure difference between two membranes
Boyle’s law
Pressure and volume are inversely proportiona
Gases in a container, when volume decreased, pressure increases due to collision of gas molecules and now these gas molecules are confined to a smaller place, so more bombardment
Lungs are always changing in volume so the pressure changes as well with inspiration and expiration
B lymphocytes
Transform into plasma cells and release antibodies into the circulation, which are proteins that tag the pathogens to signal the immune cells to destroy it
Form memory cells- every pathogen has specific surface receptors (signature), they can remember for next time how to fight the infection
Path of the egg
the mature egg is released into the body cavity and is swept into the end of the oviduct (Fallopian tube) by an undulating fringe of tissue (Fertilization takes place in the oviduct and, in humans, the second meiotic division takes place)
Cilia lining the oviduct propel the fertilized or unfertilized egg toward the uterus, a muscular, thick-walled cavity
The opening at the bottom of the uterus is the cervix,which leads into the vagina
Mode of travel of peptides and steroids
Peptides- travel easy in blood because water soluble
Lipids- mostly water so need transport proteins to shield them from hydrophillicity of blood because not water soluble
Amino acids
Have carbonyl and amino groups with a hydrogen and an R group
function as an acid and base
R group make differences in amino acids
Spontaneous reaction
Goes more than halfway to completion without input of energy
Exergonic, negative delta G
Release energy in form of heat, light, etc
Reverse process must be endergonic
Amniocentesis
extraction of amnioticfluid with a needle, after the fourteenth week of pregnancy
Cristae
Folds of the inner membrane give rise to these
Contains large protein molecules used in cellular respiration
Lymphoid tissues
Adenoids, tonsils, thymus, lymph noes, spleen, bone marrow, lymphatic vessels
Immune cells originate here, majorly from bone marrow
immune cells are scattered all over, but they are clustered in certain areas in case of infection
Organization of the immune system
Nonspecific immune response- protects against foreign substances without having to recognize their identity
Specific immune response- highly specific, usually a major problem that your body is really trying to fight
Twinning
- If blastomeres separate into two groups, each can produce an embryo.
- Monozygotic twins come from the same zygote and are identical.
- Nonidentical twins are from two eggs fertilized by two sperm.
Rubisco
Enzyme that catalyzes fixation of CO2
Ribosome bisphosphate carboxylase/
Most abundant protein in the world, 50% of the protein in a leaf
Limit of resolution
.61 x wavelength / NA
NA= refractive index x sine of angle of most oblique ray
Signaling events
Graded potential- from dendrites into the cell body, minor change in electrical activity
Action potential- at axon hillock and axon
Propagation- traveling of electron activity
Neurotransmitter release
Occipital lobe
Visual cortex
Process visual information
RNA bases
Uracil instead of thymine
Single stranded but complementary base pairing occurs in the structure of some types of RNA
Pathogens
Parasite
Bacteria
Protist
Fungi
Virus
Entry of Sperm into the Egg
- In animals with internal fertilization, egg–sperm recognition mechanisms also exist.
- In the female reproductive tract, mammalian sperm are metabolically activated and attracted to the egg in the oviduct, but also aided in their movement by muscular contractions.
- The mammalian egg is surrounded by a thick layer called the cumulus. Beneath that is a protein envelope called the zona pellucida.
- A species-specific glycoprotein in the zona pellucida binds to the head of the sperm.
- The acrosomal reaction is triggered, releasing acrosomal enzymes that digest a path through the zona pellucida
Antenna systems
Pigments arranged in these
Also called light harvesting complexes
Optimal conditions for enzymes
pH and temperature
FSH/LH
Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) & luteinizing hormone (LH)
Produces gametes and sex hormones
Target organs: testes or ovaries
The Cardiovascular System
A closed system (blood always contained in blood vessels, always circulating) that consists of the heart, blood vessels, and the blood
– The heart pumps blood
– Blood vessels provide the path for the blood to travel (like a freeway)
– Blood carries nutrients and picks up wastes
Mechanisms of steroids action on target cells
Every cell exposed to this hormone, and steroid cell is hydrophobic so can interact with every cell but not every cell has receptor
Exits blood vessel to get to the target cell
Steroid permeates through cell membrane and forms complex called hormone receptor complex in nucleus, bind to a section of DNA gene called hormone response element that activates the gene to start gene expression
Messenger RNA made and goes to the cell cytosol
Synthesizes protien and makes changes inside the cell and causes cellular response
Slow process but major changes
Accessory pigments
Transfer energy absorbed to chorophylls
Carotenoids and phycobilins
Absorb intermediate between red and blue
third trimester
internal organs mature and organ systems begin to function
The last organs to mature before birthare the lungs
Alveolar type I cells
form the wall of the alveoli
Carotenoids
Light-absorbing pigments
Source of vitamin A
Fluorescence
When a pigment returns to ground state some of the energy may be given off as heat and some as fluorescence
Fluorescence has longer wavelengths and less energy than the absorbed light energy
No chemical work done
If pigment can pass the energy to another molecule, there’s no fluorescence, the energy can be passed to a reaction center where it is converted to chemical energy
Photosynthesis
“synthesis from light”
Plants take in CO2, produce carbohydrates, and release O2 and water
Light is required
6CO2 + 12H2O–> C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O
Chloroplasts
Sites where photosynthesis occurs, one type of plastid
Surrounded by two layers and have interal membrane system
Cyclic electron transport
Electron from excited P700 chlorophyll molecule n photosystem one cycles back to the same chlorophyll molecule
Involves a series of exergonic redox reactions, the released energy creates a proton gradient that is used to synthesize ATP
Pigments
Molecules that absorb specific wavelengths in the visible range of the spectrum
Photons can have a wide range of wavelengths and energy levels
Gastrulation
Gastrulation is the process in which a blastulais transformed into an embryo with three
tissue layers and body axes
Organization of the immune system
Nonspecific immune response- protects against foreign substances without having to recognize their identity
Specific immune response- highly specific, usually a major problem that your body is really trying to fight
Where Does Fertilization Take Place?
- Fertilization in mammals occurs in the upper oviduct; cleavage occurs as the zygote travels down the oviduct.
- When the blastocyst arrives in the uterus, the trophoblast adheres to the uterine wall (the endometrium), which begins the process of implantation.
- Early implantation in the oviduct wall is prevented by the zona pellucida. Inadvertent implantationcauses a tubal pregnancy, which is very dangerous.
- In the uterus, the blastocyst hatches out of the zona pellucida, and implantation can occur.
- Stimulated by estrogen, the endometrium develops new blood vessels to cradle the blastocyst.
- The blastocyst burrows in (implantation), interacting with the wall to form the placenta.
Ruben and kamen
Used radioisotope tracers (O18 and O16) to determine that water was the source of O2 released during photosynthesis rather than CO2
Lymphoid progenitor cells
Form into B lymphocytes, T lymphocytes
Photosystem 2
Light energy oxidizes water to oxygen, H+, and electrons
Reaction center has chlorophyll a molecules: P680 absorbs at 680 nm (more energetic than P700)
Excited first
Premature Contractions and Delivery
- A positive feedback loop develops (mechanical stimuli increase the release of oxytocin, and vice versa), and this converts Braxton-Hicks contractions into stronger labor contractions.
- In the early stage of labor, contractions gradually become more frequent and intense until they haveopened the cervix.
- In the delivery stage, the baby’s head moves into the vagina and becomes visible from the outside.
- The usual head-down position of the baby comes about during the seventh month of pregnancy.
Parasite
Any organism that invades and lives by the expense of another body
Most are animals, either micro or macroscopic
Infects muscles and digestive system takes blood (muscles) and nutrients (liver)
Mitochondrial matrix
Region enclosed by inner membrane
Krebs or citric acid cycle takes place here
Complement system
Pore formation: First complement protein (inactive), cascade of protein activation in bacterial cell
Swelling: fluid rushes into cells
Lysis
Somites
separate, segmented blocks of cells on either side of the neural tube.
Muscle, cartilage, bone, and lower layer of the skin form from somites.
Neural crest cells are guided by somites to develop into peripheral nerves and other structures
Other roles for nucleotides
ATP- energy transducer in biochemical reactions
GTP- energy source in protein synthesis
cAMP- essential to the action of hormones and transmission of information in the nervous system
Adenohypophysis
Anterior pituitary gland
made of secretory glands, non neuronal, makes and releases own hormones. No neuronal connects on to hypothalamus
• Releases six peptide hormones, all made of peptides
– Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) & luteinizing hormone (LH)
– Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)
– Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)– Prolactin
– Growth hormone (GH)
Where does calcium come from?
Important ion, numerous functions
High intercellular level can be toxic and therefore must be maintained at a very low level inside the cell (10^-9 M)
Stored in muscle cells, no reliance on extracellular calcium concentration
DNA replication
Depends on base pairing, as does transcription
Involves entire molecule only small sections of DNA are transcribed into RNA
third trimester
internal organs mature and organ systems begin to function
The last organs to mature before birthare the lungs
Correlation of Electrocardiogram graph and heart activities
Beginning of P wave- SA Node, AV
Middle to end of P wave- AV Nodal delay
Between P wave and QRS- Signals travel through bundle of his reaching the apex
QRS complex- pukinje fibers
Within ventricles, heart contracts from bottom to top, all the blood comes out, none remains below
Boyle’s law
Pressure and volume are inversely proportiona
Gases in a container, when volume decreased, pressure increases due to collision of gas molecules and now these gas molecules are confined to a smaller place, so more bombardment
Lungs are always changing in volume so the pressure changes as well with inspiration and expiration
Light microscopes
Glass lenses focus visible light, max resolution of .2 um
Retina
Photoreceptors recover light and end it to the brain through optic nerve
Contains fovea centralis( photoreceptors scattered all of retina, but these are the places where they have the guest concentrate on, called high visual acuity)
Types of cells:
ganglion- long axons that send signals to the brain
Amacrine- support cells, strengthen synapses, between ganglion and bipolar
bipolar- form synapses with rods and cones
horizontal- support cells, strengthen synapses, between photoreceptors and bipolar cells
photoreceptors (rods and cones)- when stimulated, electrical activity begins
When light first hits ganglion and bipolar cells nothing happens because they are not equipped to react to light,
How do gases cross the lung/bloodmedia?
Process of diffusion.
Alveoli made of single layered cells, blood capillaries only have tunica intima and some connective tissue, so very thin, and easy process of diffusion
Both the capillaries and the alveoli are lined with simple squamous epithelium
Entry of Sperm into the Egg
- In animals with internal fertilization, egg–sperm recognition mechanisms also exist.
- In the female reproductive tract, mammalian sperm are metabolically activated and attracted to the egg in the oviduct, but also aided in their movement by muscular contractions.
- The mammalian egg is surrounded by a thick layer called the cumulus. Beneath that is a protein envelope called the zona pellucida.
- A species-specific glycoprotein in the zona pellucida binds to the head of the sperm.
- The acrosomal reaction is triggered, releasing acrosomal enzymes that digest a path through the zona pellucida
Frontal lobe
Motor functions, movement of muscles
Premotor cortex- planning
Primary motor cortex- initiates motor movements (motor homunculus), bottom up
Prefrontal association cortex- complex tasks and cognitive functions
Broca’s area- speech production
Axon terminals
Axon collaterals terminate in many axon terminals
Contain neurotransmitter filled vesicles
Electrical signal changes to chemical signal
How do gases cross the lung/bloodmedia?
Process of diffusion.
Alveoli made of single layered cells, blood capillaries only have tunica intima and some connective tissue, so very thin, and easy process of diffusion
Both the capillaries and the alveoli are lined with simple squamous epithelium
What causes binding to occur?
ATP and calcium
Ossicles
3 small bones, malleus, incus, and stapes(attatched to oval window)
Intermediate filaments
Fund in multicellular organisms, form rope like structures in cells
Stabilize cell strucuture and resist tension
Can maintain the positions of organelles
Lamins provide structural support to the nuclear membrane
Peptide linkage
Condensation reactions between amino group of one amino acid and the carboxyl group of another
Synthesizes proteins
Cell recognition and adhesion
Sponge cells- separation and come back together
Glycoproteins are involved in cell recognition and binding
Homotypic binding- same molecule sticks out from both cells and forms a bond
Heterotypic binding- cells have different proteins
Macrophages in alveoli
Ward against foreign bodies, get rid of debris
