Long Answer Flashcards
Discuss antimicrobial resistance (AMR) and its implications.
Definition of AMR:
The ability of microorganisms to resist the effects of antimicrobial agents, making infections harder to treat.
Causes of AMR:
The main contributors to AMR include the overuse and misuse of antibiotics in humans and animals, inadequate infection control practices, lack of new antibiotics development, and environmental contamination.
Implications of AMR:
AMR has serious implications for global health, increasing healthcare costs, hospital stays, and mortality rates. Resistant infections are harder and more expensive to treat, often requiring stronger, more toxic, and costly medications. AMR also threatens medical procedures like surgeries and cancer treatments
Solutions and Strategies to Combat AMR:
To combat AMR, strategies include:
Responsible Antibiotic Use: Prescribing antibiotics only when necessary and ensuring proper dosages and durations.
Infection Prevention and Control: Promoting hygiene and sanitation in healthcare and community settings.
Research and Development: Investing in new antibiotics, vaccines, and alternative treatments.
Public Awareness and Education: Informing the public about the importance of responsible antibiotic use.
Properties of carbohydrates, lipids or proteins
Carbohydrates:
Monomers - monosacharides joined by glyocosodic bonds
Examples - startch, cellulose
Elements - C, H, O
Functions - energy source, structual, reserves food
Lipids:
Monomers - fatty acids and glycerol joined by ester bonds
Example - Fats, oils, waxes
Elements - C, H, O
Functions - Energy Source, insulation, memebrane
Protein:
Monomers - amino acids joined by peptide bond
Example - insulin, collagen
Elements - C, H, O, N, S
Functions - enzyme, structure, defense
- Define several terms related to public health management (burden of disease, mortality, morbidity, prevalence)
**Burden of Disease: Overall impact of diseases and injuries on population health, often measured in DALYs.
Mortality: The number of deaths in a population within a specific period.
Morbidity: The presence of illness or disease within a population.
**Prevalence: **The proportion of individuals in a population who have a particular disease at a specific time.
- Mechanical Vs Chemical digestion of carbohydrates, and enzymes involved.
CARBOHYDRATE:
Mechanical DIgestion:
- Begins in the mouth, where chewing (mastication) physicaly breaks down large food particles into smaller pieces, increasing surface area for enzymes to act on
- Chemical Digestion:
- Mouth - **Salivary Amylase **enzyme strats breaking down startch (polysacharide) into smaller suagrs like maltose
- Stomach - begins the digestive process. food is not abosrbed in the stomach, but some lipid soluable substances are
- Small Intestine - Chemical digestion and absorption of nutrients. Pancretic amylase is secreted from the pancreas into the duodenum of the small intestine to break down statch into diasaccharides. Brush border enzymes including maltase, surcrase, lactase break down diasaccharides into monosaccharides that can be abosrbed.
- Large intestine- asending, transverse and decending colon. Absorbs last of the water and salt and converts luminal contents into facaes
- Vaccines (Different type of vaccine, mRNA vaccine)
Types of Vaccines:
Live-Attenuated Vaccines
- contain weakened pathogen; require 1-2 doses. Examples: rotavirus, varicella
**Inactivated Vaccines **
- contain killed pathogen; require several doses (booster shots). Examples: Hepatitis A, rabies, inactivated
poliovirus vaccine
Subunit Vaccines
- Contain killed, antigenic component of pathogen; require
several doses (booster shots). Examples: pneumococcal
Toxoid Vaccine
- Contain toxin made by pathogen; may require
booster shots. Examples: Diphtheria, pertussis
mRNA
Type of vaccine that uses messenger RNA (mRNA) to instruct cells to produce a protein from the pathogen (e.g., the spike protein of SARS-CoV-2). The immune system then recognizes this protein as foreign and mounts an immune response.
Example: Pfizer-BioNTech and Moderna COVID-19 vaccines
. Mechanical Vs Chemical digestion of Lipids, and enzymes involved.
Lipid Digestion:
Mechanical:
- begins in the mouth with chewing but is minimal for lipids. an enzyme lingual lipase is priduced by cells on the tongue.
- stomach mixing and churning helps to disperse food particles. cellsin the stomach produce another lipase, called gastric lipase that also contributes to enzymatic digestion of triglycerides.
Chemical Digestion:
- Small Intestine - bile produced by the liver and stored in the gallbladder is released into the duodenum, where it emulsifies fats. emulsification breaks down large fat globules into smaller droplets, increasing surface area for enzyme action.
- pancretic lipase then acts on these smaller droplets to break down triglycerdies into fatty acids and monoglycerides.
Absorption: The products of lipid digestion (fatty acids and monoglycerides) are absorbed into the intestinal cells, where they are reassembled into triglycerides and transported via the lymphatic system
Mechanical Vs Chemical digestion of Proteins, and enzymes involved.
Protein Digestion
Mechanical:
- Begins in the oral cavity where chewing
Chemical:
- Stomach, Protein digestion begins in the stomach where HCI and pepsin break down protein into smaller polypeptides, which then travel to small intestine.
- Small intestine - chemical digestion is continued by pancretic enzymes including Chymptrypsin, typsin, each of which act on specific bonds in amino acids, at the same time the cells of the brush border secretes enzymes such as aminopeptidase and dipeptidase which further break down peptide chains. this results in molecules, small enough to break to enter the blood stream.
What are the 6 fucntions of protein?
Enzymes
- allow biochemical reactions to proceed by lowering the energy required to indicate reaction
Defense
- immunoglobulins seek out objects considered non self
transport
- cell membrane a barrier seperating internal contents from surroundings
support/structural
- provide support
contratile/motor
- myosin/actin protein arrange to form muscle fibers for motion
regulation/hormonal
- coordinates an organisms activites by triggering response
storage
-storage of metal ions
Protein denaturation
pH - influences pronation of charged side groups
Temp- disrupts H bonding through increased molecuar vibration
ionic - salt, concertration, interfers with ionic bonds
agitation - distrupts H bonding throug shear forces
