Logical Reasoning

Question 1

Objective #1

Answer 1

Determine whether the stimulus contains and argument or if it is only a set of factual statements

Question 2

Because, since, for, for example, for the reason that, in that, given that, as indicated by, due to, owing to, this can be seen from, we know this by

Answer 2

Premise Indicators

Question 3

Thus
Therefore
Hence
Consequently
As a result
So
Accordingly
Clearly
Must be the
Shows that
Conclude that
Follows that
For this Reason

Answer 3

Conclusion Indicators

Question 4

Primary Objective #2

Answer 4

IF the stimulus contains an argument, identify the conclusion of the argument. If the stimulus contains a fact set, examine each fact.

Question 5

Furtermore
Moreover
Besides
In addition to
What's more
After All

Answer 5

Additional Premise Indicators

Question 6

But
Yet
However
On the other hand
Admittedly 
In Contrast
Still 
Although
Whereas
Even though
Despite

Answer 6

Counter Premise Indicators

Question 7

Primary Objective #3

Answer 7

IF the stimulus contains an argument, determine whether the argument is strong or weak

Question 8

Primary Objective #4

Answer 8

Read closely and know precisely what the author said. Do not generalize! Read the fine print

Question 9

All
Every
Most
Many
Some
Several
Few
Sole
Only
Not All
None

Answer 9

Quantity Indicators - important in every question!! Seek matches in stimulus and answers

Question 10

Must
Will
Always
Not always
probably
liekly
would
not necessarily
could
rarely
never

Answer 10

Probability indicators

Question 11

Primary Objective #5

Answer 11

Carefully read and identify the question stem. Do not assume that certain words are automatically associated with certain question types

Question 12

Family One - Must be True or Prove Family

Answer 12

1 - Must be True
2 - Main Point
3 - Point at issue
9 - Method of reasoning
10 - Flaw in reasoning
11 - parellel reasoning 

Top down. Must accept the stimulus information- prove that one answer choice must be true.
Any information in an answer choice that does not appear in the stimulus or as a combination of items in the stimulus is incorrect

Question 13

Family Two - Help Family

Answer 13

4 - Assumption
5 - Justify the conclusion
6 - Strengthen/Support
7 - Resolve the paradox

Bottom up. Stimulus info is suspect. Reasoning errors present usually.

Question 14

Family 3 - Hurt Family

Answer 14

8 - Weaken
Information in stimulus is suspect. Reasoning errors present. Must further weaken the argument.
Even if new information is in answers, task is still to attack argument.

Question 15

Family 4 - Disprove

Answer 15

13 - cannot be true
Must accept stimulus information, even if contains error of reasoning, and use that info to prove one of the answer choices cannot occur.

If answer choice contains new information, then that answer choice is incorrect.

Question 16

Primary Objective #6

Answer 16

Prephrase after reading question stem. Take a moment to mentally formulate your answer to the question stem

Question 17

Primary Objective #7

Answer 17

Always read each of the five answer choices

Question 18

Primary Objective #8

Answer 18

Separate the answer choices into contenders and losers. After completing this process, review the contenders and decide which answer is the correct one

Question 19

Primary Objective #9

Answer 19

If all five answer choices appear to be losers, return to the stimulus and reevalute the argument

Question 20

If the statements above are true, which one of the following must also be true?
If the information above is correct, which one of the following conclusions can be properly drawn on the basis of it?
The statements above, if true, most strongly support which of the following?
Which one of the following can be properly inferred from the passage?
Which one of the following is most strongly supported by the information above?

Answer 20

Must Be True Questions

Question 21

Infer means…

Answer 21

Must be true

Question 22

Correct answers in must be true questions

Answer 22

Paraphrased answers - Restate stimulus in different terms. Can appear too obvious

Combination Answers - Combining two or more statements from the stimulus would make a correct answer.

Question 23

Incorrect Answers in Must be True Questions

Answer 23

Could be true or likely to be true: very broad. Fail because must be specific

Exaggerated Answers: Broad stretch: Changing “some” to “most,” Changing “likely” to “will”

“New” Information

Reverse Answer: ‘Many people have some security’ changes to ‘Some people have many type of security’

Question 24

The Shell Game

Answer 24

An idea or concept is raised in the stimulus, and then a very similar idea appears in the answer choice, but the idea is changed enough to be incorrect but still attractive.

Question 25

When a stimulus contains only the opinions of others..

Answer 25

In a must be true question you can eliminate any answer choice that makes a flat assertion without reference to those opinions.

Question 26

Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main conclusion of the argument? Which of the following most accurately expresses the conclusion of the journalist's argument? The main point of the argument is

Answer 26

Main point questions

Question 27

Incorrect answer types of main point questions

Answer 27

Answers that are true but do not encapsulate the author's point Answers that repeat premises of the argument The answer is the conclusion!

Question 28

Sufficient Condition

Answer 28

An event or circumstance whose occurrence indicates that a necessary condition must also occur In order for human'a brains to evolve the way the did, humans needed to intake a lot of calories. Meat has a lot of calories. So for human brain evolution, a necessary condition was "a lot of calories", the sufficient condition is "a lot of meat". Another sufficient condition would be "a shit load of snickers/candy" or anything else that has a lot of calories in it. Here you can see that eating a lot of meat is not necessary to satisfy brain evolution, as you can eat a lot of anything, but it does satisfy. However it is necessary to eat a lot of calories. \

Question 29

Necessary Condition

Answer 29

An event or circumstance whose occurrence is required in order for a sufficient condition to occur In order for human'a brains to evolve the way the did, humans needed to intake a lot of calories. Meat has a lot of calories. So for human brain evolution, a necessary condition was "a lot of calories", the sufficient condition is "a lot of meat". Another sufficient condition would be "a shit load of snickers/candy" or anything else that has a lot of calories in it. Here you can see that eating a lot of meat is not necessary to satisfy brain evolution, as you can eat a lot of anything, but it does satisfy. However it is necessary to eat a lot of calories.

Question 30

``` If When Whenever Every All Any People Who In order to ```

Answer 30

Introduce a Sufficient Condition

Question 31

``` Then Only Only If Must Required Unless Except Until Without ```

Answer 31

Introduce a necessary condition

Question 32

Whatever term is modified by the "unless," "except," "until," or "without" becomes the _______ condition

Answer 32

Necessary Condition The remaining term is negated and becomes the sufficient condition

Question 33

Unless a person studies, he or she will not receive an A+

Answer 33

a+ -> Study

Question 34

There is no peace without justice

Answer 34

Peace -> Justice

Question 35

No Robot can think

Answer 35

R-> /T No robot can think means that every single robot does not have the characteristic of being able to think. Thus, if an entity is a robot, it cannot think. None at the beginning of the sentence would operate in the exact same way.

Question 36

When you encounter a stimulus that contains a conditional reasoning and a Must Be True question stem, immediately look for a

Answer 36

contrapositive or a repeat for in the answer choices

Question 37

Double Conditional arrow

Answer 37

If and only if vice versa If A attends then B attends and if B attends then A attends

Question 38

If gomez runs for president, then hong will not run for president

Answer 38

Double Arrow G H

Question 39

Either A or B must occur

Answer 39

A/ -> B

Question 40

For Weaken questions, focus on the

Answer 40

Conclusion

Question 41

``` Weaken Attack Undermine Refute Argue against call into question cast doubt challenge damage Counter ```

Answer 41

Weaken the argument questions

Question 42

Which of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument? Which of the following, if true, most undermine's the researcher's argument? Which of the following, if shown to be a realistic possibility, would undermine the argument? Which of the following, if true, would most call into question the analyst;s explanation of the price increase? Which of the following, if true, could be used by Cora to counter Bernard's rejection of her explanation? Which of the following, if true, is the strongest logical counter.. Which of the following, if true, most calls into question the claim above?

Answer 42

Weaken Question Stems

Question 43

Correct answer in a weaken question would

Answer 43

make the author reconsider his or her position or force the author to respond

Question 44

Common Weaken Scenarios

Answer 44

Incomplete information - Author fails to consider all possibilities: Flaw can be attacked with new information Improper Comparison: Author compares two or more items that are essentially different Qualified Conclusion: Limits conclusion

Question 45

Weaken Incorrect Answer Traps

Answer 45

Opposite Answers - strengthen the argument instead of weakening it. Shell Game - slightly different answer Out of scope - misses the point

Question 46

Weaken Conditional reasoning in conclusion

Answer 46

To weaken a conditional conclusion, attack the necessary condition by showing that the necessary condition does not need to occur in order of the sufficient condition to occur.

Question 47

Weaken conditional reasoning in the stimulus

Answer 47

find an answer that attacks the necessary condition

Question 48

``` Caused by Because of responsible for reason for leads induced by promoted by determined by produced by product of played a role in was a factor in is an effect of ```

Answer 48

Cause and effect relationship

Question 49

How to attack a causal conclusion

Answer 49

Find an alternative cause for the stated effect Show that even when the cause occurs, the effect does not occur Show that although the effect occurs, the cause did not Show that the relationship is reversed Statistcal problem

Question 50

Which of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument? Which of the following, if true, if true, most strongly supports the statement above? does most to justify the conclusion above? Each of the following supports the claim above EXCEPT

Answer 50

Strengthen questions

Question 51

How to strengthen an argument

Answer 51

Identify the conclusion Personalize Look for a weakness

Question 52

Question stem uses phrase If or another sufficient condition indicator

Answer 52

Justify the conclusion

Question 53

The conclusion follows logically if which one of the following is assumed? Which one of the following, if assumed, would allow the conclusion to be properly drawn? Which one of the following is an assumption that would serve to justify the conclusion above

Answer 53

JUSTIFY THE CONCLUSION

Question 54

Solving Justify Questions Mechanistically

Answer 54

Any new element in the conclusion will appear in the correct answer Elements that are common to the conclusion and at least one premise usually do not appear in the correct answer Elements in the premises but not conclusion usually appear in the correct answer (250)

Question 55

Which one of the following is an assumption required by the argument Which one of the followng is an assumption upon which the argument depends The argument assumes which of the following The conclusion cited does not follow unless

Answer 55

Assumption Questions