logical fallacies

Question 1

Appeal to Anonymous Authority

“They say that it takes 7 years to digest chewing gum.”

Answer 1

Using evidence from an unnamed ‘expert’, ‘study’ or generalized group (like ‘scientists’) to claim something is true.

Question 2

Appeal to Authority

“Over 400 prominent scientists and engineers dispute global warming.”

Answer 2

Claiming something is true because an ‘expert’, whether qualified or not, says it is.

Question 3

Appeal to Common Practice

“This bank has some problems with corruption. But there’s nothing going on here that doesn’t go on in all the other banks.”

Answer 3

Claiming something is true because it’s commonly practiced.

Question 4

Appeal to Ignorance

“Nobody has proved to me there is a God. So there is no God.”

Answer 4

A claim is true simply because it has not been proven false (or false because it has not been proven true).

Question 5

Appeal to Incredulity

“The eye is an incredibly complex biomechanical machine with thousands of interlocking parts. How could that exist without an intelligent designer?”

Answer 5

Because a claim sounds unbelievable, it must not be true.

Question 6

Appeal to Money

“If it costs more, it must be better.”

Answer 6

Supposing that, if someone is rich or something is expensive, then it affects the truth of the claim.

Question 7

Appeal to Novelty

“Awesome! The latest version of this operating system is going to make my computer faster and better…”

Answer 7

Supposing something is better because it is new or newer.

Question 8

Appeal to Popular Belief

“Everyone knows milk is good for your bones.”

Answer 8

Claiming something is true because the majority of people believe it.

Question 9

Appeal to Probability

Answer 9

Assuming because something could happen, it will inevitably happen.

Question 10

Appeal to Tradition

Answer 10

Claiming something is true because it’s (apparently) always been that way.

Question 11

Appeal to Consequences of a Belief

Answer 11

Arguing a belief is false because it implies something you’d rather not believe.

Question 12

Appeal to Fear

Answer 12

An argument is made by increasing fear and prejudice towards the opposing side.

Question 13

Appeal to Flattery

Answer 13

Using an irrelevant compliment to slip in an unfounded claim which is accepted along with the compliment.

Question 14

Appeal to Nature

Answer 14

Making your claim seem more true by drawing a comparison with the “good” natural world.

Question 15

Appeal to Pity

Answer 15

Attempt to induce pity to sway opponents.

Question 16

Appeal to Ridicule

Answer 16

Presenting the opponent’s argument in a way that makes it appear absurd.

Question 17

Appeal to Spite

Answer 17

Dismissing a claim by appealing to personal bias against the claimant.

Question 18

Appeal to Wishful Thinking

Answer 18

Suggesting a claim is true or false just because you strongly hope it is.

Question 19

Anecdotal Evidence

Answer 19

Discounting evidence arrived at by systematic search or testing in favor of a few firsthand stories.

Question 20

Composition

Answer 20

Assuming that characteristics or beliefs of some or all of a group applies to the entire group.

Question 21

Division

Answer 21

Assuming that characteristics or beliefs of a group automatically apply to any individual member.

Question 22

Design Fallacy

Answer 22

Assuming that because something is nicely designed or beautifully visualized it’s more true.

Question 23

Gambler’s Fallacy

Answer 23

Assuming the history of outcomes will affect future outcomes.

Question 24

Hasty Generalization

Answer 24

Drawing a general conclusion from a tiny sample.

Question 25

Jumping to Conclusions

Answer 25

Drawing a quick conclusion without fairly considering relevant (and easily available) evidence.

Question 26

Middle Ground

Answer 26

Assuming because two opposing arguments have merit, the answer must lie somewhere between them.

Question 27

Perfectionist Fallacy

Answer 27

Assuming that the only option on the table is perfect success, then rejecting anything that will not work perfectly.

Question 28

Relativist Fallacy

Answer 28

Rejecting a claim because of a belief that truth is relative to a person or group.

Question 29

Spotlight

Answer 29

Assuming an observation from a small sample size applies to an entire group.

Question 30

Sweeping Generalisation

Answer 30

Applying a general rule too broadly.

Question 31

Undistributed Middle

Answer 31

Assuming because two things share a property, that makes them the same thing.

Question 32

Ad Hoc Rescue

Answer 32

Trying to save a cherished belief by repeatedly revising the argument to explain away problems.

Question 33

Biased Generalizing

Answer 33

Generalizing from an unrepresentative sample to increase the strength of your argument.

Question 34

Confirmation Bias

Answer 34

Cherry-picking evidence that supports your idea while ignoring contradicting evidence.

Question 35

False Dilemma

Answer 35

Presenting two opposing options as the only two options while hiding alternatives.

Question 36

Lie

Answer 36

An outright untruth repeated knowingly as a fact.

Question 37

Misleading Vividness

Answer 37

Describing an occurrence in vivid detail, even if it is a rare occurrence, to convince someone that it is a problem.

Question 38

Red Herring

Answer 38

Introducing irrelevant material to the argument to distract and lead towards a different conclusion.

Question 39

Slippery Slope

Answer 39

Assuming a relatively small first step will inevitably lead to a chain of related (negative) events.

Question 40

Suppressed Evidence

Answer 40

Intentionally failing to use significant and relevant information which counts against one’s own conclusion.

Question 41

Unfalsifiability

Answer 41

Offering a claim that cannot be proven false, because there is no way to check if it is false or not.

Question 42

Affirming the Consequent

Answer 42

Assuming there’s only one explanation for the observation you’re making.

Question 43

Circular Logic

Answer 43

A conclusion is derived from a premise based on the conclusion.

Question 44

Cum Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc

Answer 44

Claiming two events that occur together must have a cause-and-effect relationship. (Correlation = cause).

Question 45

Denying the Antecedent

Answer 45

There isn’t only one explanation for an outcome. So it’s false to assume the cause based on the effect.

Question 46

Ignoring a Common Cause

Answer 46

Claiming one event must have caused the other when a third (unlooked for) event is probably the cause.

Question 47

Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc

Answer 47

Claiming that because one event followed another, it was also caused by it.

Question 48

Two Wrongs Make a Right

Answer 48

Assuming that if one wrong is committed, another wrong will cancel it out.

Question 49

Ad Hominem

Answer 49

Bypassing the argument by launching an irrelevant attack on the person and not their claim.

Question 50

Burden of Proof

Answer 50

I don’t need to prove my claim - you must prove it is false.

Question 51

Circumstance Ad Hominem

Answer 51

Stating a claim lacks credibility only because of the advocate’s interests in their claim.

Question 52

Genetic Fallacy

Answer 52

Attacking the cause or origin of a claim, rather than its substance.

Question 53

Guilt by Association

Answer 53

Discrediting an idea or claim by associating it with an undesirable person or group.

Question 54

Straw Man

Answer 54

Creating a distorted or simplified caricature of your opponent’s argument, and then arguing against that.