Logic

Question 1

What is the definition of deduction?

Answer 1

Reasoning from at least one general or universal premise usually to a more particular conclusion.

Question 2

What is the definition of induction?

Answer 2

Reasoning from concrete particular instances which are known by experience usually to a more general or universal conclusion.

Question 3

Does deduction yield certainty or probability?

Answer 3

Certainty

Question 4

Does induction yield certainty or probability?

Answer 4

Probability

Question 5

What are the two conditions that have to be met in order for the argument to be sound?

Answer 5

Valid argument + All true premises = Sound argument

Question 6

Fallacies

Answer 6

A defect in an argument that arises from either a good mistake in reasoning or the creation of an illusion that makes a bad argument appear good.

Question 7

Bandwagon argument

Answer 7

Basic form –> Everybody believes such and such does or does such and such; therefore you should believe or do such and such too.

Ex. Practically everybody believes in life after death. Therefore, you should believe in life after death too.

Question 8

Appeal to vanity

Answer 8

Involves linking to love, admiration, or approval of the crowd with some famous figure who is loved, admired, or approved of.

(Often used by advertisers, parent, and people in general)

Ex.Daniel Craig wears an Omega wristwatch. Thus, if you want to be respected like him, you will buy and wear an Omega watch too.

Question 9

Straw man

Answer 9

When an arguer distorts an opponents argument for the purpose of more easily attacking it, demonlishes the distorted argument, and then concludes that the opponents real argument has been demolished.

Ex. Mr.Goldberg has argued against prayer in public schools. Obviously Mr.Goldberg advocates atheism. But atheism is what they used to have in Russia. Atheism leads to the suppression of all regions and the placement of God by omnipotent state. Is that what we want for this country? I hardly think so. Clearly Mr.Goldbergs argument is nonsense.

Question 10

Hasty generalization

Answer 10

In induction, a generalization is an argument that draws a conclusion about all member of a group from evidence that pertains to selected sample.

The fallacy occurs when there is a reasonable likelihood that the sample is not representative of the group; occurs if the same is either too small or not randomly selected.

Ex. Today’s money’s manager are a pack of thieves, every last one of them. Look at Bernie Madoff and Robert Allen Stanford. They ripped off billions of dollars from thousands of trusting clients. And Raj Rajaratnam profited to the tune of millions of dollars through illegal insider trading.

Question 11

Slippery slope

Answer 11

Occurs when the conclusion of an argument rests on an alleged chain reaction and there is not sufficient reason to think the chain reaction with actually take place.

Ex. Immediate steps should be taken to outlaw pornography once and for all. The continued manufacture and sale of pornographic material will almost certainly lead to an increase of sex-related crimes such as rape and incest. This is in turn gradually erode the moral fabric of society and result in an increase of crimes of all sorts. Eventually a complete disintegration of law and order will occur, leading in the end to the total collapse of civilization.

Question 12

Begging the question

Answer 12

Commited whenever the arguer creates the illusion that inadequate premises provide adequate support for the conclusion by leaving out a possibility false (shaky) key premise, by restating a possibly false premise as the conclusion, or by reasoning in a circle.

Called “begging the question because the actual source of support of the conclusion is not apparent, and so the argument is said to beg the question.

Ex. Murder is morally wrong. This being the case, it follows that abortion is morally wrong.

Ex. We know that humans are intended to eat lots of fruits because the human hand and arm are perfectly suited for picking fruit from a tree.

Question 13

False dichotomy

Answer 13

Commited when a disjunctive (“either…or..”) premise presents to unlikely alternative as if they were the only ones available, and the arguer then eliminates the undesirable alternative, leaving the desirable one as the conclusion.

Ex. Either you let me attend the Lady Gaga concert or I’ll be miserable for the rest of my life. I know you don’t want me to be miserable for the rest of my life, so you’ll let me attend the concert.

Question 14

Equivocation

Answer 14

Occurs when the conclusion of an argument depends on the fact that a word or phrase is used, either explicitly or implicitily, in two different senses in the argument.

Ex. Some triangles are obtuse. Whatever obtuse is ignorant. Therefore, some triangles are ignorant.

Question 15

Argument against the person (Ad hominem)

Answer 15

One arguer advances an argument…second arguer responds by directing the attention to the person making the argument.

Question 16

Ad hominem (abusive)

Answer 16

Verbally disparage the opponent or their character.

Ex. Television entertainer Bill Maher argues that religion is just a lot of foolish nonsense. But Maher is an arrogant, shameless, self-righteous pig. Obviously his argument are not worth listening to.

Question 17

Ad hominem (circumstancial)

Answer 17

Discredit the opponents argument by alluding to some circumstance that affects the opponent.

Ex. The Dalai Lama argues that China has no business in Tibet and that the West should do something about it. But the the Dalai Lama just want the Chinese to leave so he can return as leader. Naturally he argues this way. Therefore, we should reject his arguments.

Question 18

Ad hominem (tu quoque) “you too”

Answer 18

Second arguer attempts to make the first appear to be hypocritical or arguing in bad faith, usually to do with the life or behavior for the first arguer.

Ex. President Biden argues that we should avoid eating junk food. But look at what he eats, he eats junk food. Biden’s argument about food are not worth listening too.