Locus of Control/Social Learning Theory

Question 1

Define locus of control.

Answer 1

Whether you attribute outcomes in life as being due to your own (internal) or other (external) forces.

Question 2

Outline Rotter’s model (1966).

Answer 2

A unidimensional model of locus of control from internal to external.

Question 3

What does Rotter’s locus of control depend upon?

Answer 3

• Generalised expectancy for reinforcement - importance is high in ambiguous situations.
• Reinforcement value (depends on the value the individual places on the situation).
• Availability of alternative behaviours.

Question 4

What kind of theory is Rotter’s locus of control an example of?

Answer 4

An expectancy-value theory (do actions lead to an outcome?).

Question 5

Outline fundamental attribution errors at a trait level.

Answer 5

• Bad -> you = situation
• Bad -> other = self
• Good -> you = self
• Good -> other = situation

Question 6

Describe Levenson’s model (1973).

Answer 6

Divided external category into chance and powerful others (e.g. doctors).

Question 7

Describe Paulhus & Christie’s sphere of control.

Answer 7

Centre circle of ‘self’ connecting out into concentric circles of independent spheres or ‘theatres’ of control - control profiles can be created.

Question 8

What are the three domains/theatres of Paulhus & Christie’s sphere of control?

Answer 8

• Achievement
• Interpersonal
• Socio-political

Question 9

Describe the idea of human agency as part of Bandura’s social learning theory.

Answer 9

Goals lead to intentionality, which leads to forethought (motivation) and (simulation of future), causing self-reactiveness (moral judgment). This leads to decision and action, followed by self-reflectiveness (self-evaluation).

Question 10

Define self-efficacy.

Answer 10

The belief that you can perform a behaviour - training programs increase self-efficacy when dealing with phobias etc.

Question 11

What does self-efficacy lead to?

Answer 11

Outcome expectancies - the estimate that a given behaviour will lead to a given outcome.

Question 12

What other constructs can self-efficacy be extended to?

Answer 12

• Control by proxy (proximity increases efficacy)

- Collective (group) efficacy

Question 13

What does self-efficacy affect?

Answer 13

Choice, initiation and persistence (effort) of behaviour.

Question 14

What is self-efficacy a good predictor of?

Answer 14

Success in phobia treatment programs etc.

Question 15

What are the dimensions of self-efficacy?

Answer 15

Magnitude, generality and strength.

Question 16

When self-efficacy (y) and outcome expectancy (x) are plotted on a graph, what does it show?

Answer 16

1. High self-efficacy results in skilled competency and high outcome expectancy results in agency.
2. There are problems when the two domains are discrepant, because they represent the relationship between perceived/real abilities and the environment. If s-e is high and outcome expectancy low, then people might for example do worse at tasks than they expect to.

Question 17

What can discrepancy between self-efficacy and outcome expectancy be linked to?

Answer 17

Seligman’s Learned Helplessness model of depression, whereby people want to do something, but can’t. This model suggests that an external locus of control should result in depression, as people think they cannot change outcomes.

Question 18

Outline Ferguson & Cox’s (1996) implicit model.

Answer 18

A cognitive map which can be represented in a graph, where:
y axis = Internal - Top = unstable construct [effort], bottom = stable construct [ability, skill]
x axis = External - Right = unstable construct [luck, fate, chance], left = stable construct

Question 19

Outline the best-worst sources of efficacy.

Answer 19

1. Performance (and appropriate feedback)
   - Participant modelling - e.g. for someone with a phobia, facing that fear.
2. Vicarious experiences
   - Observer modelling
3. Verbal persuasion
   - Suggestion
4. Emotional arousal
   - Biofeedback, controlling and understanding own emotional arousal.

Question 20

How does high self-efficacy affect performance under stress?

Answer 20

It results in lower cortisol and adrenaline when doing stressful task (e.g. a social stress test, such as giving a speech).

Question 21

How does locus of control affect peoples’ lives in terms of coping etc.?

Answer 21

Internals live longer after (successful) lung transplant, use more ‘adaptive’ coping styles - they tend to decide how to improve a situation and do it, and perform better at work and do better in exams.

Question 22

What does attributional style depend on?

Answer 22

Internality/externality, controllable/uncontrollable, stable/unstable and global/specific. Something is more likely to be attributed to ability if the person is internal and stable and the situation global and uncontrollable, and the opposite is true for attribution to effort (except both are internal).

Question 23

What affects the likelihood of depressive cognitions in terms of attribution?

Answer 23

Depression = internal, stable and global for negative outcomes. Seligman’s learned helplessness model of depression suggests that people with external loci of control are more likely to be depressed, however it seems to have more to do with attribution.
If internals’ own (internal) ability (global) leads to a negative outcome, this is more likely to lead to depressive cognitions. However if this is due to lack of effort (specific), depressive cognitions are less likely - effort can be increased (controllable) or the context changed, whereas ability is relatively stable (uncontrollable).

Question 24

Outline individual differences in people’s desire to control events in their lives.

Answer 24

There is often an implicit assumption that we desire control over our lives, that it makes us happier, but this is not true. The two extremes are called monitors and blunters, where monitors want to know everything and blunters want to know nothing.

Question 25

What does experimental data from lab experiments suggest that a lack of control leads to?

Answer 25

In the situation of having a button that can be pressed to stop a noise then having it taken away, a lack of control leads to performance deficits. It can result in either reactance effects - people want control back - or learned helplessness, essentially resignation.

Question 26

What is the problem with experimental data from lab experiments on lack of control?

Answer 26

Lack of control does not always lead to performance deficits in real life situations - some people don’t want control (blunters).

Question 27

Outline White’s ‘effectance motivation’.

Answer 27

The motivation needed to attain competence cannot be wholly derived from sources of energy currently conceptualized as drives or instincts; it is derived from a motivational aspect of competence called effectance motivation.

Question 28

How do desire (y) and felt control (x) relate according to Law et al. (1994)?

Answer 28

• High desire for control + low felt control (top left box) results in:
  
  • Poor coping skills and as such experimentally provided coping skills
  • Report highest anxiety
  • When given a control intervention, report more experienced control and less pain
• Low desire for control + low felt control (bottom left box)
  
  • When given control intervention, report less experienced control and a trend towards pain.

Question 29

Outline the matching or congruency hypothesis.

Answer 29

The premise that control beliefs interact with environmental contingency and other beliefs.

Question 30

What did Christensen et al. (1991) do?

Answer 30

Studied renal patients and found evidence for the matching or congruency hypothesis - internal control is related to lower depression only in patients without a failed transplant with severe symptoms, but is related to depression for those with a failed transplant.

Question 31

How can dimensionality be measured?

Answer 31

• Asking people about personal and political control

- Using the IPC (locus of control scale)

Question 32

What is specificity in relation to locus of control?

Answer 32

General, health, work, economics, physical recovery - people may score differently on locus of control for each area of life.

Question 33

What did Ferguson et al. (1994) state?

Answer 33

That locus of control, self-efficacy and attribution style all represent a single construct.

Question 34

What are defensive externals?

Answer 34

Externals who endorse an external orientation but act like internals (lie on questionnaires).

Question 35

How can defensive externals be differentiated from internals?

Answer 35

Through:

• Measuring anxiety (splits externals into low [external] and high [defensive] anxious individuals)
• Using a friend to make judgements

Question 36

Why is reinforcement valence important?

Answer 36

• Rotter’s model is about general expectancies plus reinforcement valence
• Need to know if the person values the behaviour
• If not, only assessing 50% of the theory

Question 37

Who are the ‘good’/’bad’ guys in terms of locus of control?

Answer 37

• Internality is adaptive and good for your health

- However, internals may be selfish and self-centred and externals may be collectivists and altruistic

Question 38

How is outcome valence important to theories of locus of control?

Answer 38

Measures contain items about control over both negative and positive outcomes, but in fact these appear to be very different constructs.