LO2 Flashcards
criminological theories
biological
sociological
individualistic
biological
physiological = lombroso and sheldon
genetics = adoption studies, jacob’s XYY theory, twin studies
lombroso’s atavism theory (1876) what is it?
believed that criminals were physically different to other people
‘atavistic’ less developed by evolution
separate sub species of human
less in control, less sensitive to pain
studied faces of prisoners, living and dead
lombroso’s atavism theory research
attempted a scientific approach to analysing crime (one of the first to do this)
systematically measured and recorded faces of convicted criminals
concluded that criminals could be identified by their physical features
physiological approach
lombroso’s criminal characteristics
narrow sloping brow
prominent jaw
high cheekbones
large ears
extra nipples, toes, fingers
long ‘ape like’ arms
reduced sensitivity to pain - tattoos
murderers = beak like noses and curly hair
sex offenders = thick lips and protruding ears
thieves = flattened noses
strengths of lombroso’s theory
1- first theory that aimed to be scientific, objective approach to understand crime using evidence, paved the way for the development of scientific evidence in relation to criminal behaviour
2- argued that criminals may not freely choose their behaviour as it may be pre determined. helps focus on crime prevention rather than punishment
3- perspective, argued that prisons were like crime university’s, high rates of reoffending
weaknesses of lombroso’s theory
1- outdated, theory was created in the 19th century, question how well it applies to criminality today. lacks temporal validity as modern research has found no evidence for his theory
2- form of racism to say criminals are like ‘primitive savages’, has been pointed out by DeLisi (2012) that a lot of atavistic features are specific of those of african descent
3- not all criminals have atavistic features, and not all people with atavistic features are criminals
sheldon’s somatotype theory
wrote the ‘alas of men’ in 1954 where he explained his physiological theory of body types
believed that different features of out personality and behaviours are linked to our body type, including criminality
sheldon’s somatotypes
endomorphic = fat, soft, lack muscle with wide hips
>personality = sociable and relaxed
ectomorphic = thin, fragile, lacking muscle / fat
>personality = introverted and restrained
mesomorphic = THE CRIMINAL SOMATOTYPE, muscular, hard bodied
>personality = aggressive, adventurous, assertive, domineering
mesomorphs most likely to be attracted to risk taking involved in crime
used a correlation study and found groups most likely to commit crimes are medomorphs, least likely being ectomorphs
sheldon’s research
asked people to rate photos from a scale of 1-7 according to how close the mesomorphs type each one was
half the images were of collage students, other half were juvenile delinquents
delinquents has a higher average rating as mesomorphs than the collage students
strengths of sheldon’s theory
1- Glueck and Glueck (1956) found 60% mesomorphs in their sample of delinquents, only 31% in the sample of non-delinquents. this suggests a relationship between somatotype and criminal behaviour
2- used a large sample (200) in his study and had a control group of students to compare the results to.delinquents who committed the most serious crimes were rated most likely to be mesomorphs, this shows a positive correlation
weaknesses of sheldon’s theory
1- theory can’t explain how endomorphs and ectomorphs can also be criminals. incomplete theory
2- somatotypes are not fixed, as people’s bodies change throughout their life. sheldon’s does not consider whether this would change their personality and or criminal behaviour
3- could possibly lead to bias and labelling mesomorphs in court. may lead to unfair treatment
twin studies - types of twins
monozygotic twins = identical, same fertilised egg, share 100% DNA
dizygotic twins = non identical, 2 fertilised eggs, share 50% DNA, different sperm, different egg
monozygotic twins share 100% of their DNA, so if crime is genetic, if one twin is prone to criminality, the other should be
twin studies research - Christiansen study
danish study
compared 3,596 pairs of MZ twins
found a 52% concordance rate in MZ
meant that in 52% of the cases where one twin had a conviction, the other did too
concordance rate for DZ twins was only 22%
twin studies - Christiansen conclusion
genes do play a role in tendency to criminality, the more related you are to someone with a criminal record, the greater chance of you having one
but
if crime was totally genetic, the concordance rate for MZ twins should be 100%, and it’s not
strengths of twin studies
1- christiansen (1977) further research supports the view that criminality does have a genetic component, as concordance rates with MZ twins are significantly higher than DZ twins
2- natural experiments, no one can manipulate whether someone is a MZ twin or a DZ twin, so findings are a true reflection of real life
weaknesses of twin studies
1- concordance rate of MZ twins are not 100%, therefore the environment must have an important role in the development of criminal tendencies
2- twins are usually bought up in the same environment, because of this, we cannot be sure that high concordance rates of criminality in twins is due to genetics or the environment
adoption studies
adopted children are compared with their biological parents and their adoptive parents
a child shares 50% of genes with biological parent, but little of their environment, child shares environment with adoptive parent
we can seperate our genes and environment to see which has the biggest influence
if crime is genetic, higher concordance rate should be with biological parent (nature), but if it’s more connected to upbringing and experiences higher concordance rate should be with adoptive parents (nurture)
adoption studies research- mednick
compared 14,000 adopted sons in denmark using records
found 20% concordance rate for criminal records with biological parents
found 14.7% concordance rate for criminal records with adoptive parents
a later study (hutchins and mednick) also found that adoptees with a criminal record were more likely to have biological parents with a criminal record than those adoptees who didn’t have a criminal record
strengths of adoption studies
1- great at separating genetic and environmental factors. this is because adopted children are exposed to a different environment to their biological family
2- multiple studies have found similar results and concluded that there is a correlation between adopted children and their biological parents
weaknesses of adoption studies
1- the age that a child is adopted may have an impact. those adopted later in life are likely to have a large influence from their biological parents
2- the adoption process isn’t always random, children are often placed with parents similar to their biological parents. if this is the care, studies may not separate nature and nurture as much as they aim to
jacob’s XYY theory
in jacob’s syndrome an extra Y chromosome is inherited, leading to XYY
males born with this chromosomal condition are typically:
very tall
well built
of low intelligence
jacob’s XYY theory - research support
price and whitmore found XYY makes were generally less mature and more unstable than XY males, and had a tendency to commit property crime without a purpose
higher average proportion of XYY males among prisoners and inmates of secure psychiatric hospitals than in the general population
15 in 1000 men in prison, compared to 1 in 1000 men in general population
strengths for jacob’s XYY theory
1- jacob et al (1965) found a significant number of men in prisons had XYY chromosomes. this suggests a correlation between the genetic abnormality and criminal behaviour
2- research support from adler et al (2007). findings indicate that aggressive and violent behaviour is at least partly determined by genetic factors
weaknesses of jacob’s XYY theory
1- a large proportion of the typical population have chromosomal abnormalities. this does not mean they are criminals
2- attempting to explain criminality in terms of sex chromosomes is massively reductionist. there are mainly other environmental factors such as upbringing and peers which may impact criminal behaviour
learning theory - SLT
a way of explaining behaviour that included direct and indirect reinforcement
vicarious reinforcement
where people observe a behaviour and the consequences of it
e.g. observing a sibling push someone out of the way and take a toy, observer sees this aggressive behaviour is awarded and are more likely to imitate this behaviour
vicarious punishment
is a models use of aggression is punished, an observing child is less likely to imitate their behaviour
Social Learning Theory (SLT)
key concept 1 identification
people (especially children) are more likely to imitate other’s behaviours,
people they identify with called role models
Social Learning Theory (SLT)
key concept 2 modelling
when someone is influential on an individual in some ways, they are referred to as models. if the individual then imitates the model’s behaviour it is called modelling there behaviour
Social Learning Theory (SLT)
key concept 3 vicarious reinforcement
the reinforcement the observer sees the models receiving. they do not receive a reward themselves, they see someone else get it
Social Learning Theory (SLT)
key concept 4 imitation
when an individual observes a behaviour from a role model, sees the consequences that they receive, and re creates it. (imitates it)
SLT bandura’s bobo doll experiments
4-5 year olds
3 groups
shows a film of a adult role model being verbally and physically aggressive towards an inflatable bobo doll
group 1 = model was rewarded
group 2 = model was punished
group 3 = control group, model was neither rewarded or punished
SLT bandura’s bobo doll experiments - results
group 1 = imitated the models aggressive behaviour
group 2 = least likely to imitate model’s behaviour
group 3 = imitated the model, but less so than group 1
strengths of social learning theory
1 - bobo doll experiments showed that the model did have an impact if the child’s behaviour. showing cause and effect and supporting the idea that we can learn criminal behaviour through vicarious reinforcement
2 - other researchers have replicated bandura’s study and found similar results, supports SLT as an attempt to explain criminality
weaknesses of social learning theory
1 - the theory is environmentally deterministic. it ignores other factors such as genetics and free will, which c do impact out behaviour, may not be a fully effective way to explain criminal behaviour
2 - experiments took place in a lab setting. hitting a bobo doll does not reflect aggression or criminality in daily life, it lacks ecological validity
3 - experiment has been criticised for being unethical. the experiment exposed children to aggression, and may have caused psychological harm
learning theory - freuds psychodynamic approach
key assumption 1 conscious, pre/subconscious, unconscious mind
conscious = what we are aware of
subconscious = thoughts we may become aware of through dreams etc
unconscious = ‘store house’ of biological drives and instincts that influence how we behave
learning theory - freuds psychodynamic approach
key assumption 2 tripartite structure of personality
id = instincts- pleasure principle
ego = reality - mediator between id and superego
superego = morality - morality principle or ‘your conscience’
learning theory - freuds psychodynamic approach
key assumption 3 defence mechanisms
1 = repression - keeps distressing memories from out unconscious mind
2 = denial - doesn’t allow memories to be seen as real
3 = displacement - move our feelings on to something else other than the true target
learning theory - freuds psychodynamic approach
key assumption 4 psychosexual stages
0-1 years = oral
1-3 years = anal
3-5 years = phalic - oedipus and electra complex
6-puberty = latent
puberty = genital
if anything goes wrong during these stages, freud thought that you will develop issues later in life
3 main ways the superego can be involved in criminality
1 - if superego is too weak, the id might take control
2 - if superego is too harsh, individual might seek punishment to satisfy it, therefore engage in crime
3 - develop deviant superego. identification with same sex parent during the phallic stage, taking on the parents values. anti social behaviours could be seen as ‘good’
strengths of freuds psychodynamic theory
1 - highlights that’s what happened to us as children, out early experiences, and socialisation are important. suggests that family relationships are important. this may lead to early intervention and support
2 - freuds theory of psychoanalysis has bees used in the treatments for offender. Aichhorn used it in a young offenders institution to give them a happy and pleasant experience they may have missed at home, allowing them to develop a superego
weaknesses of freuds psychodynamic theory
1 - psychodynamic explanations such as freuds rely on interpretations of people’s thoughts and behaviour that cannot be proven. different analysis might come to different interpretations. thus, is it subjective
2 - freuds case study’s are not reliable as he knew his patients. he also analysed his own dreams and childhood. again, it is subjective and biased
learning theory - eysencks theory of personality
renowned psychologist - famous for work on personality
developed a method = ‘measuring’ personality characteristics using an ‘inventory’ or questionnaire
two personality:
1 = extroversion vs. introversion (E scale) - nurture
2 = neuroticism vs. stability (N scale) - nature
people’s personality’s varies along two dimensions
extroversion = how much stimulation they need
neuroticism = how emotionally unstable they are
high N scale
people who have very changeable emotions, prone to anxiety and depression
high E scale
people who need lots of external stimulation
low N scale
people who have very stable emotions
low E scale
people who need little external stimulation
who’s pat does it mean if you get high scores on the E and N scale
a person who scores highly on the E scale would be a highly extroverted individual
most people fall around the middle of the scales
people most likely to commit crime score highly on E and N scales, so are extroverted and neurotic
two explanations to why criminals have high E and N scales
1 - conditioning
2 - genetic inheritance
conditioning = (nurture) - learning from rewards and punishments
this individual is extrovert, so need a lot of stimulation and excitement
this can lead to erratic, rule breaking behaviour
likely to be punished
genetic inheritance = (nature) from an inherited nerve system
being high on the N scale, they are hard to condition
high level of anxiety, resistant to learning from punishments
leads to criminal personalities
eysencks ‘P scale’
third dimension to the personality scales - psychotocism
a high P scale can also lead to criminal personality
person tends to be:
solitary/misfit in society
cruel
insensitive
aggressive
lacking empathy
can also be very creative
(nature) psychotocism vs. normality
influenced by biological factors, correlated with levels of hormones such as testosterone
high levels of P reduce a persons ability to respond to conditioning, harder to adapt to social norms
link to criminality
linked through socialisation
criminal behaviour is developmentally immature, selfish and focused on immediate gratification
socialisation teaches us to deal gratification through a process of conditioning
people with high P and N scales are more difficult to condition
strengths for eysencks personality theory
1 - theory is correct, it enables criminals behaviour to be detected in childhood as personality should be stable. this would be beneficial as it would enable interventions to take place to reduce criminal behaviour
2 - scientific support from DeYoung which offers objectivity. it has been suggested that there is a link between P, E, and N scores and brain processes. for e.g. high levels of testosterone are linked to high psychotocism. this offers stability to the theory
weaknesses for eysencks personality theory
1 - lacks reliability as it can be inconsistent. for e.g. is someone takes this personality test today, they may get a different answer in months to come
2 - can be argued that it’s not a valid measure. completing this questionnaire is self report and people may not accurately answer all of the questions. it could be that people lack the ability to reflect on themselves or show social desirability bias. this would not be an accurate representation of their personality
social structure theory 1 - marxism
karl marx believed that a capitalist society caused crime
capitalist society = money and private ownership of property’s
the bourgeoisie = owns factory’s and farms, control the means of production
the proletariat = working class, majority
according to marx a class is defined by the relations between its members to the means of production
marxism - the proletariat
under capitalism’the people’
own only their work / capacity to work
have the ability to only sell their own labour
own nothing else, therefore cannot ‘sell’ or make money off it
paid bare minimum wage
they are alienated as they have no control over labour or product he produces, because they make thus product for the bourgeoisie
marxism - bourgeoisie
the capitalists sell products produced by the proletariat as a proportional value as related to the labour involved
surplus value is the difference between what the worker is paid and the price for which the product is sold
they have control
government, police, legal system = bourgeoisie
in control of the means of production
strengths of marxism
1 - shows that poverty and inequality can cause crime in working class, and how capitalism can cause greed and crime in upper class. therefore it aims to be a comprehensive explanation of crime
2 - highlights issues that law making and law enforcement can be based against the working class, e.g. white collar crime if often unprotected
weaknesses of marxism
1 - fails to highlight other inequalities in crime such as gender and ethnicity
2 - marxism over predicts working class crime. being poor doesn’t necessarily lead to crime
3 - not all capitalist societies have high crime rates. e.g. japan and switzerland have nerdy low crimes rates. therefore, marxism may not be an effective explanation of crime worldwide
social structure theory 2 - functionalism
emile durkheim believes that society exists because is benefits individuals to live as a collective group
also believed that the structures of society and institution in society serve to make it work better by:
strengthening communal bonds
reinforcing common norms and values
what do functionalists believe
how things work and function
how they benefit society - including crime
durkheim is the most famous functionalist, he says that crime is inevitable, functional and beneficial
how does functionalism explain crime
crime happens because some people are less committed to the means/needs of the whole group
there will always be a minority who do not conform
crime is functional in 4 ways
1 - boundary maintenance
2 - social change
3 - acts as a safety value
4 - warning light
1 - boundary maintenance
united it’s members in condemnation of wrongdoers. punishment makes the wrongdoer suffer or mend their ways. brings solidarity
2 - social change
all changes start with an act of deviance. individuals challenge existing norms and values, the authorities may persecute them, eventually a new culture arises. so society is adaptive, it doesn’t stagnate (e.g. nelson mandela)
3 - acts as a safety value
deviance allows people to ‘let off steam’ in a relatively harmless way. this allows people to de stress and remain functional. cohen used the example of prostitution as a release that allowed for sexual expression
4 - warning light
when crime/deviance occurs it sends a message to us that society’s social order is breaking down or something is going wrong, e.g. education system is breaking down. this then prompts governments/councils to do something about the problem
what is social order
family = primary socialisation
religion = collective conscience
education = meritocracy
crime = social regulation
strengths of functionalism
1 - durkheim was the first to notice that crime can actually have positive functions such as reinforcing community boundaries and uniting people against the wrongdoer
2 - for e.g. some positive changes in society (such as women’s rights to vote) may not have come about without crime committed by the suffragettes. this sparked social change
weaknesses of functionalism
1 - durkheim thought that society needed a bit of deviance to function, but he did not specify how much is enough
2 - crime may have positive functions, but not for the victims
3 - he does not consider the causes of crime, just theories that it may be beneficial to society
labelling theory (interactionism)
(becker and lemert) making assumptions
thinking of a person or group of people in a certain way which determines how you behave towards them
suggests our interactions with one another are based on the labels we have for each other
our concepts of crime are socially constructed
labelling theory - process in relation to crime
1= label is attached - leads of differential treatment
2= label is applied all the time - becomes a master status, person accepts the label
3= self fulfilling prophecy, the label is lived up to - act in accordance with it
primary deviance
acts of deviance that haven’t been labelled publicly, seen as being insignificant
secondary deviance
when you are caught and publicly labelled as being deviant resulting in stigmatisation/exclusion. criminal label becomes your master status or controlling identity
what is a deviance amplification spiral
this is when a deviant act is highlighted by the media causing moral panic.
also involves offenders and similar people being stereotyped by labels
stanley cohen (1972)
says that media’s reaction to particular social groups or activities are believed to be threatening social values
this creates feelings of anxiety within the general population
puts pressure on authorities to do something about the problem
strengths of labelling theory
1 - highlights that the police and others in society’s create crime by applying labels based on stereotypes ’typification’
2 - may explain why captain groups seem to have higher crime rates e.g. working class/minority groups due to bias in policy
highlights the role of the media in defining and creating deviance and producing moral panics
weaknesses of labelling theory
1 - not everyone who is labelled lives up to that label. the theory is too deterministic. so, may not be a full explanation to why people commit crime
2 - it doesn’t explain why people commit primary deviance before they are labelled. so, an be seen as an incomplete explanation of criminal behaviour
realism (left wing and right wing)
stem from different political view points
the political perspective someone holds can influence the way they see crime, criminals and what should be done about it
someone who has right realist views suggests that criminals make a choice to commit crime
someone who has left realist views suggests that the impact of society (especially deprivation) causes crime
three causes of crime according to left realists
marginalisation
relative deprivation
subcultures
left realists - marginalisation
treating a person or a group as being insignificant or less important
younger, lower working class teens rioted across the UK in 2011 using social media to plan it
they represent themselves, aim to break free from the marginalised group and become superior
they feel as if they cannot escape crime, they feel an identification with their group and that crime is inevitable to survive, they feel frustrated and hostile
left realists - relative deprivation
the idea that people are deprived (materially etc) compared with others in society
lea and young believe that media and advertising makes people aware but also raises people’s expectations about their standard of living, also believe that society is becoming more unequal due to low pay, job insecurity, benefit cuts
perceived unfairness leads to crimes such as anti social behaviour and violence
left realists - subcultures
if people feel little power, frustration, hostile and resent mainstream society, may form subcultures
react from their perception from wider society and their relative deprivation and turn to crime
not all subcultures will turn to crime, they may try to get heard in other way, like religion, peaceful protests, art, music, or politics
left realists - solutions: lea and young
red to improve peoples opportunities so everyone had a decent standard of living: improve housing, community service and policing
need to be assisted by local communities
police need to regain confidence from the local community
three causes of crime according to right realists
biological
inadequate socialisation
choice
right realists - biological differences
wilson and hernstein
biological differences predispose some people to crime
e.g. personality traits associated with criminality such as aggressiveness, risk taking and low IQ are innate
right realists - underclass theory (inadequate socialisation)
charles murray - socialisation teaches self control and correct values
underclass = deviant and criminal values which is passed on through inadequate socialisation
non-nuclear families = lack of male role models in the family, lack of strong male influence (inadequate socialisation) = male role models are found on the street instead
claim poor social bonds are the main cause if crime in inner city areas and council estates
right realists - rational choice
clarke 1980 - claims we all have free will
decision to commit crime is a rational choice: a person works out whether the reward outweighs the consequences
currently, the perceived cost of crime is low, that has meant crimes have increased
right realists - solutions to crime
more CCTV
more police officers
zero tolerance policing
harsher punishments
discourage family breakdowns
strengths for right realism
1 - has helped produce and shape the governments research into crime. e.g. stimulated a range of victim surveys and practical measures to combat crime
2 - offers more practical approach’s to tackling crime
weaknesses for right realism
1 - ignores wider structural causes of crime such as poverty
2 - ignores the increasing gap between rich and poor creating resentment (relative deprivation)
strengths for left realism
1 - explores the role of the victim of crime, especially the poor or vulnerable, in much more depth than any other criminological theory
2 - recognises multiple causes of crime
3 - left realism avoids the worst excesses of both right and left wing approaches by neither glorifying nor attacking the police
weaknesses for left realism
1 - does not explain why everyone in relative deprivation fails to turn to crime
2 - arguably made up from a mixture of other theories pulled together
3 - fails to explain white collar crime or corporate crime
