Literary and Rhetorical Devices Flashcards
Active Voice
The subject of the sentence performs the action.
Active Voice
This is a more direct and preferred style of
writing in most cases.
Active Voice
“Anthony drove while Toni searched for the house.”
Passive Voice
When the subject of the sentence receives the action.
Passive Voice
“The car was driven by Anthony.”
Passive Voice
Passive voice is often overused, resulting in lifeless writing.
Allusion
An indirect reference to something
Allusion
Literary text, although it can be other things
commonly known, such as plays, songs, historical events
Allusion
With which the reader is supposed to be familiar.
Alter-ego
A character that is used by the author to speak the author’s own thoughts; when an author speaks directly to the audience through a character.
Alter-ego
In Shakespeare’s last play, The Tempest.
Alter-ego
Shakespeare
talks to his audience about his own upcoming retirement, through the main character in the play, Prospero.
Anecdote
A brief recounting of a relevant episode.
Anecdote
Anecdotes are often inserted into fictional or non
fictional texts as a way of developing a point or injecting humor.
Anecdote
A politician who is arguing for a different type of healthcare program.
Antecedent
The word, phrase, or clause referred to by a pronoun.
Antecedent
The AP language exam occasionally
asks for the antecedent of a given pronoun in a long, complex sentence or in a group of sentences.
Antecedent
“If I could command the wealth of all the world by lifting my finger, I would not pay such a price for it.”
Classicism
Art or literature characterized by a realistic view of people and the world.
Classicism
Sticks to traditional themes and structures
Classicism
Dante, Petrarch, and Shakespeare in poetry and theatre.
Comic relief
When a humorous scene is inserted into a serious story
Comic relief
In order to lighten the mood somewhat.
Comic relief
The “gatekeeper scene” in Macbeth
Diction
Word choice, particularly as an element of style.
Diction
Different types of words have significant effects
on meaning. An essay written in academic diction would be much less colorful, but perhaps more precise
than street slang.
Diction
Formal or informal, ornate or plain.
Colloquial
Ordinary or familiar type of conversation.
Colloquial
A “colloquialism” is a common or
familiar type of saying, similar to an adage or an aphorism.
Colloquial
Ex. Yall, wanna, gonna
Connotation
The associations suggested by a word.
Connotation
Implied meaning rather than literal meaning.
Connotation
“policeman,” “cop,” and “The
Man” all denote the same literal meaning of police officer, but each has a different connotation.
Denotation
The literal, explicit meaning of a word, without its connotations.
Denotation
Bear - Teaches people to fish and pick berries.
Eagle - Rules the sky and can transform into a human.
Denotation
Helps readers understand a word, phrase, or sentence in its literal form, without other implied, associated, or suggested meanings.
Jargon
The diction used by a group which practices a similar profession or activity.
Jargon
Lawyers speak using particular jargon, as do soccer players.
Jargon
Jargon becomes essential in prose or verse or some technical pieces of writing, when the writer intends to convey something only to the readers.
Vernacular
Language or dialect of a particular country.
Vernacular
Language or dialect of a regional clan or group.
Vernacular
Plain everyday speech
Didactic
A term used to describe fiction, nonfiction or poetry
Didactic
Teaches a specific lesson or moral or
provides a model of correct behavior or thinking.
Didactic
Every textbook and “how-to” book is an example of didacticism, as their explicit purpose is to instruct and educate.
Adage
A folk saying with a lesson.
Adage
“A rolling stone gathers no moss.”
Adage
Similar to aphorism and colloquialism.
Allegory
A story, fictional or non fictional, in which characters, things, and events represent qualities or concepts.
Allegory
The interaction of these characters, things, and events is meant to reveal an abstraction or a truth.
Allegory
Animal Farm, by George Orwell, is an allegory.
Aphorism
A terse statement which expresses a general truth or moral principle.
Aphorism
An aphorism can be a memorable summation of the author’s point.
Aphorism
Ben Franklin wrote many of these in Poor
Richard’s Almanac, such as “God helps them that help themselves,” and “A watched pot never
boils.”
Ellipsis
The deliberate omission of a word or phrase from prose done for effect by the author.
Ellipsis
“The whole day, rain, torrents of rain.”
Ellipsis
The term ellipsis is related to ellipse, which is the three periods used to show omitted text in a quotation.
Euphemism
A more agreeable or less offensive substitute for generally unpleasant words or concepts.
Euphemism
Sometimes they are used for political correctness. Sometimes a euphemism is used to exaggerate correctness to add humor.
Euphemism
“Physically challenged,” in place of “crippled.” “Vertically challenged” in place of “short.”
Figurative Language
“Figurative Language” is the opposite of “Literal Language.” Literal language is writing that makes complete sense when you take it at face value.
Figurative Language
“Figurative Language” is the opposite:
writing that is not meant to be taken literally.
Figurative Language
Ex. metaphors, similes, personification, hyperbole, and symbolism.
Analogy
An analogy is a comparison of one pair of variables to a parallel set of variables. Similes and metaphors are sometimes also analogies.
Analogy
When a writer uses an analogy, he or she argues that the relationship between the first pair of variables is the same as the relationship between the second pair of variables.
Analogy
“America is to the world as the hippo is to the jungle.”
Hyperbole
Exaggeration.
Hyperbole
“My mother will kill me if I am late.”
Hyperbole
Is quite common in poetry and everyday speech to convey emphasis.
Idiom
A common, often used expression that doesn’t make sense if you take it literally.
Idiom
“I got chewed out by my coach.”
Idiom
Can amplify messages in a way that draws readers in and helps to awaken their senses.
Metaphor
Making an implied comparison, not using “like,” as,” or other such words.
Metaphor
“My feet are popsicles.”
Metaphor
An extended metaphor is when the metaphor is continued later in the written
work. If I continued to call my feet “my popsicles” in later paragraphs, that would be an extended
metaphor. A particularly elaborate extended metaphor is called using conceit.
Metonymy
Replacing an actual word or idea, with a related word or concept.
Metonymy
“Relations between London and Washington have been strained,”. “I could not understand his tongue”
Metonymy
Does not literally mean relations between
the two cities, but between the leaders of The United States and England.
Synecdoche
A kind of metonymy when a whole is represented by naming one of its parts, or vice versa.
Synecdoche
“The cattle rancher owned 500 head.” “Check out my new wheels.”
Synecdoche
Is a rhetorical device where the speaker/writer uses a part of something in the place of the whole thing.
Simile
Using words such as “like” or “as” to make a direct comparison between two very different things.
Simile
“My feet are so cold they feel like popsicles.”
Simile
Sometimes they are simply needed to accurately describe emotions and feelings, as well as keep the readers guessing about what is being hinted.
Synesthesia
A description involving a “crossing of the senses.”
Synesthesia
Examples: “A purplish scent filled the room.” “I was deafened by his brightly-colored clothing.”
Synesthesia
Refers to a technique adopted by writers to present ideas, characters, or places in such a manner that they appeal to more than one sense, like hearing, sight, smell, and touch at a given time.
Personification
Giving human-like qualities to something that is not human.
Personification
“The tired old truck groaned as it inched up the hill.”
Personification
Can help readers understand, sympathize with, or react emotionally to non-human characters.
Foreshadowing
When an author gives hints about what will occur later in a story.
Foreshadowing
It gives the reader a hint of something that is going to happen without revealing the story or spoiling the suspense
Foreshadowing
I think a storm is coming.” This can signify a physical storm or a metaphorical storm that is coming in the story.
Genre
The major category into which a literary work fits.
Genre
The basic divisions of literature are prose,
poetry, and drama. However, genres can be subdivided as well (poetry can be classified into lyric, dramatic,
narrative, etc.).
Genre
Ex. autobiography, biography, diaries, criticism, essays, and journalistic, political, scientific, and nature writing.
Gothic
Writing characterized by gloom, mystery, fear and/or death.
Gothic
Also refers to an architectural style of the middle ages, often seen in cathedrals of this period.
Gothic
Ex. Ann Radcliffe’s The Mysteries of Udolpho, Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein, Emily Bronte’s Wuthering Heights, and Bram Stoker’s Dracula.
Imagery
Word or words that create a picture in the reader’s mind.
Imagery
Usually this involves the five senses.
Authors often use imagery in conjunction with metaphors, similes, or figures of speech.
Imagery
Ex. The old man took the handful of dust, and sifted it through his fingers.
Invective
A long, emotionally violent, attack using strong, abusive language.
Invective
“A knave, a rascal; an eater of broken meats; a base, proud, shallow, beggarly, three-suited, hundred-pound, filthy, worsted-stocking knave “
Invective
Often making them seen either more human because they have strong emotions or, sometimes, more dislikable.
Irony
When the opposite of what you expect to happen does.
Irony
Can play a key role in moving a story forward and deepening its meaning.
Irony
Ex. A fire station burns down.
A marriage counselor files for divorce.
The police station gets robbed.
Verbal irony
When you say something and mean the opposite/something different.
Verbal irony
Ex. If your gym teacher wants you to run a mile in eight minutes or faster, but calls it a “walk in the
park” it would be verbal irony. If your voice tone is bitter, it’s called sarcasm.
Verbal irony
One character says or does the opposite of what he thinks, making verbal irony very similar to sarcasm or a figure of speech.
Dramatic Irony
When the audience of a drama, play, movie, etc. knows something that the character doesn’t and would be surprised to find out.
Dramatic Irony
For example, in many horror movies, we (the audience) know who the killer is, which the victim-to-be has no idea who is doing the slaying.
Dramatic Irony
Sometimes the character trusts the killer completely when (ironically) he/she shouldn’t.
Situational Irony
Found in the plot (or story line) of a book, story, or movie.
Situational Irony
Sometimes it makes you laugh because it’s funny how things turn out.
Situational Irony
(For example, Johnny spent two hours
planning on sneaking into the movie theater and missed the movie. When he finally did manage to
sneak inside he found out that kids were admitted free that day).
Juxtaposition
Placing things side by side for the purposes of
comparison.
Juxtaposition
Authors often use juxtaposition of ideas or examples in order to make a point.
Juxtaposition
(For example, an author my juxtapose the average day of a typical American with that of someone in the third world in order to make a point of social commentary).
Mood
The atmosphere created by the literature and accomplished through word choice (diction).
Mood
Syntax is often a creator of mood since word order, sentence length and strength and complexity also affect pacing and therefore mood. Setting, tone, and events can all affect the mood.
Mood
Ex. Cheerful: This light-hearted, happy mood is shown with descriptions of laughter, upbeat song, delicious smells, and bright colors.
Motif
A recurring idea in a piece of literature.
Motif
In To Kill a Mockingbird, the idea that “you never really
understand another person until you consider things from his or her point of view” is a motif, because the
idea is brought up several times over the course of the novel.
Motif
A motif can be seen as an image, sound, action, or other figure that has a symbolic significance, and contributes toward the development of a theme.
Oxymoron
When apparently contradictory terms are grouped together and suggest a paradox
Oxymoron
“wise fool,” “eloquent silence,” “jumbo shrimp.”
Oxymoron
The author adds an element of complexity and encourages the reader to think deeply about a particular idea
Pacing
The speed or tempo of an author’s writing.
Pacing
Writers can use a variety of devices (syntax, polysyndeton, anaphora, meter) to change the pacing of their words.
Pacing
An author’s pacing can be fast, sluggish, stabbing, vibrato, staccato, measured, etc.
Paradox
“You can’t get a job without experience, and you can’t get experience without getting a job.”
Paradox
A seemingly contradictory situation which is actually true
Paradox
Is a contrary to any expectations, existing beliefs or perceived opinions.
Parallelism
(Also known as parallel structure or balanced
sentences.) Sentence construction which places equal grammatical constructions near each other, or repeats identical grammatical patterns.
Parallelism
Parallelism is used to add emphasis, organization, or sometimes pacing to writing.
Parallelism
“Cinderella swept the floor, dusted the mantle, and beat the rugs.”
Anaphora
Repetition of a word, phrase, or clause at the beginning of two or more sentences or clauses in a row.
Anaphora
This is a deliberate form of repetition and helps make the writer’s point more coherent.
Anaphora
“I came, I saw, I conquered.”
Chiasmus
When the same words are used twice in succession, but the second time, the order of the words is reversed.
Chiasmus
“Fair is foul and foul is fair.” “When the going gets tough, the tough get going.”
Chiasmus
Also called antimetabole.
Antithesis
Two opposite or contrasting words, phrases, or clauses, or even ideas, with parallel structure.
Antithesis
“It was the best of times, it was the worst of times”
Antithesis
They typically make a sentence more memorable for the reader or listener through balance and emphasis of the words.
Zuegma (Syllepsis)
When a single word governs or modifies two or more other words, and the meaning of the first word must change for each of the other words it governs or modifies.
Zuegma (Syllepsis)
“The butler killed the lights, and then the mistress.” “I quickly dressed myself and the salad.”
Zuegma (Syllepsis)
Syllepsis makes the reader astonished and go back to check what the word was and how it’s working now.
Parenthetical Idea
Parentheses are used to set off an idea from the rest of the sentence.
Parenthetical Idea
It is almost considered an aside…a whisper, and should be used sparingly for effect, rather than repeatedly. Parentheses
can also be used to set off dates and numbers.
Parenthetical Idea
“In a short time (and the time is getting shorter by the
gallon) America will be out of oil.”
Parody
An exaggerated imitation of a serious work for humorous purposes.
Parody
It borrows words or phrases from an original, and pokes fun at it. This is also a form of allusion, since it is referencing a previous text,
event, etc.
Parody
The Simpsons often parody Shakespeare plays. Saturday Night Live also parodies famous
persons and events. Do not confuse with satire.
Persona
The fictional mask or narrator that tells a story.
Persona
Do not confuse with alter-ego.
Persona
A business person wants others to think that he is charitable and kind.
Poetic device
A device used in poetry to manipulate the sound of words, sentences or lines.
Poetic device
Ex. Alliteration, Repetition, Metaphor, etc.
Poetic device
Gains reader’s attention through repetition of a consonant sound,
Alliteration
The repetition of the same consonant sound at the beginning of words.
Alliteration
“Sally sells sea shells by the sea shore”
Alliteration
Alliteration focuses readers’ attention on a particular section of text.
Assonance
The repetition of identical or similar vowel sounds.
Assonance
“From the molten-golden notes”
Assonance
Writers use assonance as a literary tool to accelerate the musical effect in the poems.
Consonance
The repetition of the same consonant sound at the end of words or within words.
Consonance
“Some late visitor entreating entrance at my chamber door”
Consonance
The use of consonance provides the structure of poetry with a rhyming effect.
Onomatopoeia
The use of a word which imitates or suggests the sound that the thing makes.
Onomatopoeia
Snap, rustle, boom, murmur
Onomatopoeia
It can add excitement, action, and interest by allowing the reader to hear and remember your writing.
Internal rhyme
When a line of poetry contains a rhyme within a single line.
Internal rhyme
“To the rhyming and the chiming of the bells!”
Internal rhyme
It adds to the meanings of words, and enhances musical the effect of a poem.
Slant rhyme
When a poet creates a rhyme, but the two words do not rhyme exactly – they are merely similar.
Slant rhyme
“I sat upon a stone, / And found my life has gone.”
Slant rhyme
Many poets use slant rhyme to introduce an element of the unexpected and prompt their readers to pay closer attention to words themselves rather than the sounds of the words.
End rhyme
When the last word of two different lines of poetry
rhyme.
End rhyme
“Roses are red, violets are blue, / Sugar is sweet, and so are you.”
Rhyme Scheme
The pattern of a poem’s end rhymes.
Rhyme Scheme
For example, the following lines have a
rhyme scheme of a b a b c d c d:
Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day? a
Thou art more lovely and more temperate. b
Rough winds do shake the darling buds of May. a
And summer’s lease hath all too short a date. b
Sometime too hot the eye of heaven shines c
And often is his gold complexion dimmed d
And every fair from fair sometime declines c
By chance or nature’s changing course untrimmed d
Stressed and unstressed syllables
In every word of more than one syllable, one of the syllables is stressed, or said with more force
than the other syllable(s).
Stressed and unstressed syllables
In the name “Nathan,” the first syllable is stressed.
Stressed and unstressed syllables
In the word
“unhappiness,” the second of the four syllables is stressed.
Meter
A regular pattern to the syllables in lines of poetry.
Meter
ICE CREAM, HOT LINE, CELL PHONE. Dactyl: Three syllables, the first of which is stressed and the next two of which are unstressed.
Free verse
Poetry that doesn’t have much meter or rhyme.
Free verse
Friendship is wonderful A
Friendship is grand B
When we go through life hand in hand B
Friendship is trust C
Iambic pentameter
Poetry that is written in lines of 10 syllables, alternating stressed and unstressed syllables.
Iambic pentameter
“Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day?”
Sonnet
A 14 line poem written in iambic pentameter.
Sonnet
Usually divided into three quatrains and a couplet.
Sonnet
“Death be not proud.” —John Donne.
Polysyndeton
When a writer creates a list of items which are all separated by conjunctions.
Polysyndeton
Normally, a conjunction is used only before the last item in a list. Polysyndeton is often used to slow down the pace of the writing and/or add an authoritative tone.
Polysyndeton
Examples of polysyndeton: “I walked the dog, and fed
the cat, and milked the cows.” “Or if a soul touch any unclean thing, whether it be a carcass of an unclean
beast, or a carcass of unclean cattle, or the carcass of unclean creeping things…he also shall be unclean.”
Pun
When a word that has two or more meanings is used in a humorous way.
Pun
“My dog has a fur coat and pants!” “I was stirred by his cooking lesson.”
Rhetoric
The art of effective communication.
Rhetoric
One famous example would be Martin Luther King, Jr.’s I Have a Dream speech. “Let us not wallow in the valley of despair, I say to you today, my friends.
Aristotle’s Rhetorical Triangle
The relationships, in any piece of writing,
between the writer, the audience, and the
subject.
Aristotle’s Rhetorical Triangle
All analysis of writing is essentially
an analysis of the relationships between the
points on the triangle.
Aristotle’s Rhetorical Triangle
Logos is the use of logic, facts, or truth. Pathos is the appeal to your audience’s emotions. Ethos is the speaker or writer’s character, credibility, and authority.
Rhetorical Question
Question not asked for information but for effect.
Rhetorical Question
“The angry parent asked the child, ‘Are you finished interrupting me?’”
Rhetorical Question
In this case, the parent does not expect a reply, but simply wants to draw the child’s attention to the rudeness of interrupting.
Romanticism
Art or literature characterized by an idealistic, perhaps unrealistic view of people and the world, and an emphasis on nature.
Romanticism
Does not rely on traditional themes and structures (see classicism).
Romanticism
To Autumn by John Keats.
Sarcasm
A generally bitter comment that is ironically or satirically worded. However, not all satire and irony are sarcastic.
Sarcasm
It is the bitter, mocking tone that separates sarcasm from mere verbal irony or satire.
Sarcasm
For example, let’s say you see someone struggling to open a door and you ask them, “Do you want help?” If they reply by saying, “No thanks.
Satire
A work that reveals a critical attitude toward some element of life to a humorous effect.
Satire
It targets human vices and follies, or social institutions and conventions. Good satire usually has three layers: serious on the surface; humorous when you discover that it is satire instead of reality; and serious when you discern the underlying point of the author.
Satire
The Daily Show, The Colbert Report, and The Larry Sanders Show. These shows claim to target what they think are stupid political and social viewpoints.
Sentence
A sentence is group of words (including subject and verb) that expresses a complete thought.
Sentence
Ex. I ate dinner.
Appositive
A word or group of words placed beside a noun or noun substitute to supplement its meaning.
Appositive
“Bob, the lumber yard worker, spoke with Judy, an accountant from the city.”
Clause
A grammatical unit that contains both a subject and a verb. An independent clause expresses a complete thought and can stand alone as a sentence. A dependent, or subordinate clause cannot stand alone as a sentence and must be accompanied by an independent clause.
Clause
(Example: “Other than baseball, football is my favorite sport.” In this sentence, the independent
clause is “football is my favorite sport” and the dependent clause is “Other than baseball.”)
Balanced sentence
A sentence in which two parallel elements are set off against each other like equal weights on a scale. Both parts are parallel grammatically.
Balanced sentence
“If a free society cannot help the many who are poor, it cannot save the few who are rich.” Also called
parallelism.
Compound sentence
Contains at least two independent clauses but no dependent clauses.
Compound sentence
An example of a compound sentence is, ‘This house is too expensive, and that house is too small.
Complex sentence
Contains only one independent clause and at least one dependent clause.
Complex sentence
My Dad laughed when I told a joke.
Cumulative sentence
(also called a loose sentence) When the writer begins with an independent clause, then adds subordinate elements.
Cumulative sentence
“He doubted whether he could ever again appear before an audience, his confidence broken, his limbs shaking, his collar wet with perspiration.”
Cumulative sentence
The opposite construction is called a periodic sentence.
Periodic sentence
When the main idea is not completed until the end of the sentence. The writer begins with subordinate elements and postpones the main clause.
Periodic sentence
“His confidence broken, his limbs shaking, his collar wet with perspiration, he doubted whether he could ever again appear before an audience.”
Periodic sentence
The opposite construction is called a cumulative sentence.
Simple sentence
Contains only one independent clause.
Simple sentence
Ex. Jack and Jill went up a hill
Declarative sentence
States an idea. It does not give a command or request, nor does it ask a question.
Declarative sentence
“The ball is round.”
Imperative sentence
Issues a command.
Imperative sentence
“Kick the ball.”
Interrogative sentence
Sentences incorporating interrogative pronouns (what, which, who, whom, and whose).
Interrogative sentence
“To whom did you kick the ball?”
Style
The choices in diction, tone, and syntax that a writer makes. Style may be conscious or unconscious.
Style
For example, say an author needs to describe a situation where he witnessed a girl picking a flower: She picked a red rose from the ground.
Symbol
Anything that represents or stands for something else. Usually a symbol is something concrete such as an object, actions, character…that represents something more abstract.
Symbol
Examples of symbols include the Whale in Moby Dick, the river and the jungle in Heart of Darkness, and the Raven in “The
Raven.”
Syntax/sentence variety
Grammatical arrangement of words. This is perhaps one of the most difficult concepts to master. First, a reader should examine the length of sentences (short or long). How does sentence length and structure relate to tone and meaning. Are they simple, compound, compound-complex sentences? How do they relate to one another? Syntax is the grouping of words, while diction refers to the selection of individual words.
Syntax/sentence variety
For example, “The boy ran hurriedly,” reads differently than, “Hurriedly, the boy ran.”
Theme
The central idea or message of a work. The theme may be directly stated in nonfiction works, although not necessarily. It is rarely stated directly in fiction.
Theme
Some common themes in literature are “love,” “war,” “revenge,” “betrayal,” “patriotism,” “grace,” “isolation,” “motherhood,” “forgiveness,” “wartime loss,”
Thesis
The sentence or groups of sentences that directly expresses the author’s opinion, purpose, meaning,
or proposition. It should be short and clear. (also see argument)
Thesis
Example: In “A Worn Path,” Eudora Welty creates a fictional character in Phoenix Jackson whose determination, faith, and cunning illustrate the
indomitable human spirit.
Tone
A writer’s attitude toward his subject matter revealed through diction, figurative language and organization. To identify tone, consider how the piece would sound if read aloud (or how the author wanted it to sound aloud).
Tone
Tone can be: playful, serious, businesslike, sarcastic, humorous, formal, somber, etc.
Understatement
The ironic minimizing of fact, understatement presents something as less significant than it is. The effect can frequently be humorous.
Understatement
“Our defense played valiantly, and held the other team to merely eight touchdowns in the first quarter.”
Litotes
a particular form of understatement, generated by denying the opposite of the statement which otherwise would be used. Depending on the tone and context of the usage, litotes either retains the effect of understatement.
Litotes
(Hitting that telephone pole certainly didn’t do your car any good) or becomes an intensifying expression (The flavors of the mushrooms, herbs, and spices
combine to make the dish not at all disagreeable).
Argument
An argument is a piece of reasoning with one or more premises and a conclusion. Essentially, every essay is an argument that begins with the conclusion (the thesis) and then sets up the premises. An argument (or the thesis to an argument) is also sometimes called a claim, a position, or a stance.
Argument
Ex. Premise: All Spam is pink
Premise: I am eating Spam
Conclusion: I am eating something that is pink
Premises
Statements offered as reasons to support a conclusion are premises.
Premises
“All mammals are warmblooded [major premise]; whales are mammals [minor premise]; therefore, whales are warmblooded [conclusion].”
Conclusion
A conclusion is the end result of the argument – the main point being made. In an argument one expects that the conclusion will be supported with reasons or premises. Moreover, these premises will be true and will, in fact, lead to the conclusion.
Conclusion
Ex. In conclusion, I agree with the author.
Aristotle’s appeals
The goal of argumentative writing is to persuade an audience that one’s ideas are valid, or more valid than someone else’s.
Aristotle’s appeals
The Greek philosopher Aristotle divided all means of persuasion (appeals) into three categories - ethos, pathos, and logos.
Ethos (credibility)
means being convinced by the credibility of the author. We tend to believe people whom we respect. In an appeal to ethos, a writer tries to convince the
audience the he or she someone worth listening to, in other words an authority on the subject, as well as someone who is likable and worthy of respect. (Also see the fallacy of appeal to authority.) An argument that relies too heavily on ethos, without any
corroborating logos, can become a fallacy.
Ethos (credibility)
A commercial about a specific brand of toothpaste says that 4 out of 5 dentists use it.
Pathos (emotional)
means persuading by appealing to the reader’s emotions. (Also see the fallacy of appeal to emotion). An argument that relies too much on emotion, without
any corroborating logos, can become a fallacy.
Pathos (emotional)
There’s no one to help us here, let’s get out of here and live.” – This statement evokes emotions of fear. The “Made in America” label on various products sold in America tries to enhance sales by appealing to customers’ sense of patriotism.
Logos (logical)
means persuading by the use of reasoning, using true premises and valid arguments. This is generally considered the strongest form of persuasion.
Logos (logical)
Political Ideals (By Bertrand Russell)
Concession
Accepting at least part or all of an opposing viewpoint. Often used to make one’s own argument stronger by demonstrating that one is willing to accept what is obviously true and reasonable, even if it is presented by the opposition. Sometimes also called multiple perspectives because the author is accepting more than one position as true. Sometimes a concession is immediately followed by a rebuttal of the concession.
Concession
A teenager arguing to her parents that she needs a cell phone makes the following
Conditional Statement
A conditional statement is an if-then statement and consists of two parts, an antecedent and a consequent.
Conditional Statement
“If you studied hard, then you will pass the test.” Conditional statements are often used as premises in an argument:
Premise: If I eat Spam, then I will throw up. (conditional)
Premise: I have eaten Spam.
Conclusion: Ergo, I will throw up.
Contradiction
A contradiction occurs when one asserts two mutually exclusive propositions
Contradiction
“Abortion is wrong and abortion is not wrong.” Since a claim and its contradictory cannot both be true, one
of them must be false.
Counterexample
A counterexample is an example that runs counter to (opposes) a generalization, thus falsifying it.
Counterexample
Premise: Jane argued that all whales are endangered.
Premise: Belugas are a type of whale.
Premise: Belugas are not endangered.
Conclusion: Therefore, Jane’s argument is unsound.
Deductive argument
An argument in which it is thought that the premises provide a guarantee of the truth of the conclusion. In a deductive argument, the premises are intended to provide support for the conclusion that is so strong that, if the premises are true, it would be impossible for the conclusion to be false.
Deductive argument
For example, if B = C and C = D, then obviously B = D.
Fallacy
A fallacy is an attractive but unreliable piece of reasoning. Writers do not want to make obvious
fallacies in their reasoning, but they are often used unintentionally, or when the writer thinks they
can get away with faulty logic.
Fallacy
Ex. Ad hominem
Ad hominem
Latin for “against the man”. Personally attacking your opponents instead of their arguments. It is an argument that appeals to emotion rather than reason, feeling rather than intellect.
Ad hominem
A: “All murderers are criminals, but a thief isn’t a murderer, and so can’t be a criminal.” B: “Well, you’re a thief and a criminal, so there goes your argument.”
Appeal to authority
The claim that because somebody famous supports an idea, the idea must be right. This fallacy is often used in advertising.
Appeal to authority
A commercial claims that a specific brand of cereal is the best way to start the day because athlete Michael Jordan says that it is what he eats every day for breakfast.
Appeal to the bandwagon
The claim, as evidence for an idea, that many people believe it, or used to believe it, or do it. In the 1800’s there was a widespread belief that bloodletting cured
sickness. All of these people were not just wrong, but horribly wrong, because in fact it made people sicker. Clearly, the popularity of an idea is no guarantee that it’s right. .
Appeal to the bandwagon
You believe that those who receive welfare should submit to a drug test, but your friends tell you that idea is crazy and they don’t accept it.
Appeal to emotion
An attempt to replace a logical argument with an appeal to the audience’s emotions. Common emotional appeals are an appeal to sympathy, an appeal to revenge, an appeal to patriotism – basically any emotion can be used as an appeal.
Appeal to emotion
Strong, powerful, tragic, equality, freedom, and liberty. These words can be used in a speech to intensify an emotional appeal to an audience.
Bad analogy
Claiming that two situations are highly similar, when they aren’t.
Bad analogy
“We have pure food and drug laws regulating what we put in our bodies; why can’t we have laws to keep
musicians from giving us filth for the mind?”
Cliche thinking
Using as evidence a well-known saying, as if it is proven, or as if it has no exceptions.
Cliche thinking
“I say: ‘America: love it or leave it.’ Anyone who disagrees with anything our country does must hate America. So maybe they should just move somewhere else.”
False cause
Assuming that because two things happened, the first one caused the second one.(Sequence is not causation.)
False cause
“Before women got the vote, there were no nuclear weapons. Therefore women’s suffrage must have led to nuclear weapons.”
Hasty generalization
A generalization based on too little or unrepresentative data.
Hasty generalization
“My uncle didn’t go to college, and he makes a lot of money. So, people who don’t go to college do just as
well as those who do.”
Non Sequitur
A conclusion that does not follow from its premises; an invalid argument.
Non Sequitur
“Hinduism is one of the world’s largest religious groups. It is also one of the world’s oldest religions. Hinduism helps millions of people lead happier, more productive lives. Therefore the principles of Hinduism must be true.”
Slippery slope
The assumption that once started, a situation will continue to its most extreme possible outcome.
Slippery slope
“If you drink a glass of wine, then you’ll soon be drinking all the time, and then you’ll become a homeless alcoholic.”
Inductive argument
An argument in which it is thought that the premises provide reasons supporting the probable truth
of the conclusion. In an inductive argument, the premises are intended only to be so strong that, if
they are true, then it is unlikely that the conclusion is false. (also see deductive argument)
Inductive argument
A third marble from the bag is black. Therefore all the marbles in the bag are black.” The statement above is an example of inductive reasoning. Since the first marble from the bag was black, the second was black, and the third was black, the conclusion reached is that all the marbles in the bag are black.
Sound argument
A deductive argument is said to be sound if it meets two conditions: First, that the line of reasoning from the premises to the conclusion is valid. Second, that the premises are true.
Sound argument
- All multiples of ten are multiples of five. (True premise/All A are B)
- 30 is a multiple of ten. (True premise/C is A)
- Therefore, 30 is a multiple of 5. (True conclusion/Therefore, C is B.)
Unstated premises
Not every argument is fully expressed. Sometimes premises or even conclusions are left unexpressed. If one argues that Rover is smart because all dogs are smart, he is leaving unstated that Rover is a dog. Here the unstated premise is no problem; indeed it would probably be obvious in context. But sometimes unstated premises are problematic, particularly if two parties in a
discussion are making differing assumptions.
Unstated premises
Ex. Socrates is a human. Therefore, Socrates is mortal
Valid argument
An argument is valid if the conclusion logically follows from the premises. The following argument is valid, because it is impossible for the premises to be true and the conclusion to nevertheless be false. We do not know if the argument is sound, because we do not know if the premises are true or not.
Premise: Either Elizabeth owns a Honda or she owns a Saturn.
Premise: Elizabeth does not own a Honda.
Premise: Therefore, Elizabeth owns a Saturn.
Valid argument
The following argument is also valid, because the conclusion does follow logically from the premises. However, the argument is not sound, because one of its premises is clearly untrue.
Premise: All flightless birds are man-eaters.
Premise: The penguin is a flightless bird.
Conclusion: Therefore, the penguin is a man-eater.
Valid argument
The following argument is not valid, even though its premises are true:
Premise: All baseballs are round.
Premise: All basketballs are round.
Premise: No football is round.
Premise: The earth is round.
Conclusion: The earth is either a baseball or a basketball, but not a football.
