Literary and Rhetorical Devices Flashcards
active voice def.
the subject of the sentence performs the action
active voice ex.
“Anthony drove while Toni searched for the house.”
action voice eff.
a direct and clear way of aiding a reader’s visualization especially with the use of vivid action verbs
passive voice def.
the subject of the sentence receives the action
passive voice ex.
“The car was driven by Anthony.”
passive voice eff.
often overused and can make a sentence wordy or hard to follow
allusion def.
an indirect reference to something the reader should be familiar with(usually a literary text, but it can be other things, such as plays, songs, historical events)
allusion ex.
“She felt like she had a golden ticket.” - a reference to Charlie and the Chocolate Factory
allusion eff.
it helps the author use creative figure of speech to engage the reader and is used to distract them from specific things in the text
alter-ego def.
when an author speaks directly to the audience through a character
alter-ego ex.
In Shakespeare’s last play, The Tempest, Shakespeare talks to his audience about his upcoming retirement, through the main character, Prospero.
anecdote def.
a brief recounting of a relevant episode.
anecdote eff.
often inserted into fictional or nonfictional text as a way of developing a point or injecting humor
anecdote ex.
Picture a group of friends discussing their Halloween costumes for this year. One friend says: “I was an owl last year–it was a real hoot!” Here the anecdote is told to bring laughter.
antecedent def.
the word, phrase, or clause referred to by a pronoun
antecedent ex.
“If I could command the wealth of all the world by lifting my finger, I would not pay such a price for it.”
antecedent eff.
it makes the sense of a sentence clear to the readers and without it any subject would become confusing
classicism def.
art or literature characterized by a realistic view of people and the world; sticks to traditional themes and structures
comic relief def.
when a humorous scene is inserted into a serious story
comic relief ex.
The “gatekeeper scene” in Macbeth is an example of comic relief
comic relief eff.
this is supposed to lighten the mood somewhat
diction def.
word choice, particularly as an element of style. different types of words have significant effects on meaning
diction ex.
an essay written in academic diction would be less colorful, but more precise than street slang
diction eff.
words chosen to give a particular effect on the reader reflects the writer’s purpose
colloquial def.
ordinary or familiar type of conversation
colloquial ex.
“Hey. How are you?”
colloquial eff.
it creates a conversational tone and gives writing a casual, relaxed effect
colloquialism def.
a common or familiar type of saying
colloquialism ex.
“penny-pincher”
colloquialism eff.
can be useful in creating a bond between reader and writer
connotation def.
implied meaning rather than literal meaning
connotation ex.
“policeman,” “cop,” and “the man” all denote the same literal meaning of police officer, but each has a different
connotation eff.
using words with different connotations can really change the meaning of a sentence and the tone
denotation def.
the literal, explicit meaning of a word, without its connotations
denotation ex.
“The blueberry is very blue.”
jargon def.
the diction used by a group which practices a similar profession or activity
jargon ex.
lawyers speak using a particular jargon, so do soccer players
jargon eff.
jargon words are meant to enhance communication by simplifying a particular concept but it could confuse anyone not clued in
vernacular def.
- language or dialect of a particular country 2. language or dialect of a regional clan or group 3. plain everyday speech
vernacular ex.
the word “y’all” is a very common term in the American south
vernacular eff.
helps express that the language belongs to a specific group and honors diverse cultures
didactic def.
a term used to describe fiction, nonfiction or poetry that teaches a specific lesson or moral or provides a model of correct behavior or thinking
didactic ex.
every textbook is an example of didacticism, as their purpose is to instruct and educate
didactic eff.
supposed to instruct or teach the reader something
adage def.
a folk saying with a lesson
adage ex.
“A rolling stone gathers no moss”
adage eff.
they convey deeper meanings of wisdom and become imprinted on the minds of the users
allegory def.
a story, fictional or nonfictional, in which characters, things, and events represent qualities or concepts
allegory ex.
Animal Farm, by George Orwell is an allegory.
allegory eff.
the interaction of these characters, things, and events is meant to reveal an abstraction or a truth
aphorism def.
a terse statement which expresses a general truth or moral principle. it can be a memorable summation of the author’s point
aphorism ex.
Ben Franklin wrote many of these in Poor Richard’s Almanac, such as “God helps them that help themselves,” and “A watched pot never boils.”
aphorism eff.
through aphorisms, writers and speakers can teach universal truths to audiences, allowing them to relate to the world around them
ellipsis def.
the deliberate omission of of a word or phrase from prose done for effect by the author
ellipsis ex.
“The whole day, rain, torrents of rain.”
ellipsis eff.
the ellipsis introduces a long pause, which is a basic technique for creating tension.
euphemism def.
a more agreeable or less offensive substitute for generally unpleasant words or concepts
euphemism ex.
“physically challenged,” instead of “crippled” or “vertically challenged,” instead of “short”
euphemism eff.
sometimes they are used for political correctness or to exaggerate correctness to add humor
figurative language def.
writing that isn’t meant to be taken literally
figurative language ex.
“The world is my oyster.”
figurative language eff.
it can advance the plot of a short story or or slow a plot’s pace through lengthy descriptions and comparisons for a more philosophical approach
analogy def.
a comparison of one pair of variables to a parallel set of variables; relationship between 1st variables are the same as the one between the 2nd set(similes are sometimes analogies)
analogy ex.
“America is to the world as the hippo is to the jungle.”
analogy eff.
analogies help persuade, making it easier for people to make decisions
hyperbole def.
exaggeration
hyperbole ex.
“My mother will kill me if I’m late.”
hyperbole eff.
it adds an amusing effect by allowing the writer to present something common in an intense manner
idiom def.
a common, often used expression that doesn’t make sense if you take it literally
idiom ex.
“I got chewed out by my coach.”
idiom eff.
idioms draw readers in and help to awaken their senses
metaphor def.
making an implied comparison, not using “like or “as” or other such words
metaphor ex.
“My feet are popsicles.”
metaphor eff.
creates images that are easier to understand and respond to than literal language
metonymy def.
replacing an actual word or idea, with a related word or concept (can be used with body parts)
metonymy ex.
“Relations between London and Washington have been strained,” doesn’t literally mean the two cities, but between the leaders of the Unites States and England
metonymy eff.
creates concrete and vivid images in the place of generalities
synecdoche def.
a kind of metonymy when a whole is represented by naming one of its parts, or vice versa
synecdoche ex.
“The cattle rancher owned 500 head.” or “Check out my new wheels.”
synecdoche eff.
helps a speaker connect to their audience by sounding more colloquial and mirroring everyday language
simile def.
using words such as “like” or “as” to make a direct comparison between two very different things
simile eff.
can create a vivid image in the reader’s mind and make language more descriptive
simile eff.
can create a vivid image in the reader’s mind and make language more descriptive
synesthesia def.
a description involving the “crossing of senses”
synesthesia ex.
“A purplish scent filled the room.” or “I was deafened by his brightly-colored clothing.”
personification def.
giving human-like qualities to something that is not human
personification ex.
“The tired old truck groaned as it inched up the hill.”
personification eff.
can make non-human entities more vivid, or can help readers understand, sympathize with, or react emotionally
foreshadowing def.
when an author gives hints about what will occur later in the story
foreshadowing ex.
“I told myself this is the end of my trouble, but I didn’t believe myself.”
foreshadowing eff.
adds dramatic tension to a story about future events
genre def.
the major category into which a literary work fits
genre ex.
the basic divisions of literature are prose, poetry, and drama
genre eff.
genres help organize information to make sense of the passage
gothic def.
writing characterized by gloom, mystery, fear and/or death. also refers to an architectural style of the middle ages
gothic ex.
Frankenstein by Mary Shelley or cathedrals
gothic eff.
helps convey the panic and terror inherent in many characters
imagery def.
word or words that create a picture in the reader’s mind. usually involves the five senses. authors often use imagery in conjunction with metaphors, similes, or figure of speech
imagery ex.
“My head is pounding like a drum.”
imagery eff.
imagery can make something abstract seem more concrete and tangible to the reader
invective def.
a long, emotionally violent, attack using strong, abusive language
invective ex.
“She is a sorry excuse for a teacher.”
invective eff.
the insult is supposed to arouse negative emotion in the audience and the target of the insult
irony def.
when the opposite of what you expect to happen does
irony ex.
a fire station burns down
irony eff.
authors can use irony to make readers stop and think about what was said, or to emphasize a central idea
situational irony ex.
Johnny spent two hours planning out how to sneak into the movies and missed it. when he did get in he found out kids got in free that day
situational irony def.
found in the plot(or storyline) of a book, story, or movie. when actions have an effect that is opposite from what was intended
situational irony eff.
sometimes used to make the reader laugh because it’s funny how things turn out
verbal irony def.
when you say something and mean the opposite/something different
verbal irony ex.
if your gym teacher wants you to run a mile in eight minutes or faster, but calls it “a walk in the park” it would be verbal irony
verbal irony eff.
sometimes, but not always, verbal irony takes the form of sarcasm and is a great way to communicate doubt to your readers
dramatic irony def.
when the audience of a drama, play, movie, etc. knows something that the character doesn’t and would be surprised to find out
dramatic irony ex.
in many horror movies we (the audience) know who the killer is, which the victim-to-be has no idea who’s doing the slaying. sometimes the character trusts the killer when they shouldn’t
dramatic irony eff.
this type of irony is supposed to build suspense, create tension, and keep the reader’s interest
juxtaposition def.
placing things side by side for the purposes of comparison. authors often use juxtaposition of ideas or examples in order to make a point
juxtaposition eff.
when authors juxtapose they open the floor for readers to analyze a specific relationship more closely
juxtaposition ex.
an author my juxtapose the average day of a typical American with that of someone in the third world in order to make a point of social commentary
mood def.
the atmosphere created by the literature and accomplished through word choice (diction). sentence length, strength, complexity, setting, tone, and events all have an affect on mood.
mood ex.
humorous, gloomy, hopeful
mood eff.
it allows for greater understanding of what the author is saying by putting the reader in the position of the character
motif def.
a recurring idea in a piece of literature
motif ex.
In To Kill a Mockingbird, the idea that “you never really understand another person until you consider things from his or her point of view” is a motif, because the idea is brought up several times over the course of the novel
motif eff.
motifs are primarily used to deepen theme, but they can also serve to conjure a particular mood
oxymoron def.
when apparently contradictory terms are grouped together and suggest a paradox
oxymoron ex.
“wise fool,” “eloquent silence,” “jumbo shrimp”
oxymoron eff.
this adds an element of complexity and encourages the reader to think about a particular idea
pacing def.
the speed or tempo of an author’s writing. writers can use a variety of devices (syntax, polysyndeton, anaphora, meter) to change the pacing
pacing ex.
In Pride and Prejudice, Jana Austen uses dialogue and description to slow the pacing in certain scenes
pacing eff.
pace is supposed to create a specific atmosphere, appeal to a specific audience, or manipulate the narrative’s tone
paradox def.
a seemingly contradictory situation which is actually true
paradox ex.
“You can’t get a job without experience, and you can’t get experience without a job.”
paradox eff.
this is commonly used to engage a reader to discover an underlying logic
parallelism def.
(also known as parallel structure or balanced sentences) sentence construction which places equal grammatical constructions near each other, or repeats identical grammatical patterns
parallelism eff.
is used to add emphasis, organization, or sometimes pacing to writing
parallelism ex.
“Cinderella swept the floor, dusted the mantle, and beat the rugs.”
anaphora def.
repetition of a word, phrase, or clause at the beginning of two or more sentences or clauses in a row. this is a deliberate form of repetition
anaphora eff.
helps make the writer’s point more coherent
anaphora ex.
“I came, I saw, I conquered.”
chiasmus def.
when the same words are used twice in succession, but the second time, the order of the words is reversed
chiasmus ex.
“Fair is foul and foul is fair.” “when the going gets tough, the tough get going.”
chiasmus eff.
creates a highly symmetrical structure, and gives the impression of completeness
antithesis def.
two opposite or contrasting words, phrases, or clauses, or even ideas, with parallel structure
antithesis ex.
“It was the best of times, it was the worst of times.”
antithesis eff.
helps readers and audience define concepts through contrast and develop understanding of something through defining its opposite
zeugma (syllepsis) def.
when a single word governs or modifies two or more other words, and the meaning of the first word must change for each of the other words it governs or modifies
zeugma ex.
“The butler killed the lights, and then mistress.” “I quickly dressed myself and the salad.”
zeugma eff.
makes literary works more interesting and effective because it adds emphasis to ideas with style
parenthetical idea def.
parentheses are used to set off an idea from the rest of the sentence. it is almost considered a whisper, and should be used sparingly for effect, can be used to set off dates and numbers
parenthetical idea ex.
“In a short time (and the time is getting shorter by the gallon) America will be out of oil.”
parody def.
an exaggerated imitation of a serious work for humorous purposes. it borrows words or phrases from the original and pokes fun at it
parody ex.
the Simpsons often parody Shakespeare plays. Saturday Night Live also parodies famous persons and events
parody eff.
parodies are supposed to make the mood light and airy and cause laughter among the audience
persona def.
the functional mask or narrator that tells a story
persona ex.
In The Love Song pf J. Alfred Prufrock by T.S. Eliot, the speaker isn’t the poet at all but a clearly defined character.
persona eff.
distinguish different characters
poetic device def.
a device used in poetry to manipulate the sound of words, sentences or lines
poetic device ex.
anaphora, metonymy, zeugma, repetition
poetic device eff.
convey information or help readers understand their writing on a deeper level
alliteration def.
the repetition of the same consonant sound at the beginning of words
alliteration ex.
“Sally sells sea shells by the sea shore.”
alliteration eff.
creates a rhythm that is hard and fast, carrying the text forward
assonance def.
the repetition of identical or similar vowel sounds
assonance ex.
“From the molten-golden notes.”
assonance eff.
helps to embed a set of words within the mind of whoever is hearing, which is what makes proverbs so catchy
consonance def.
the repetition of the same consonant sound at the end of words or within words
consonance ex.
“Some late visitor entreating entrance at my chamber door.”
consonance eff.
gives language a musical element and emphasizes sounds or words that resonate with the main idea
onomatopoeia def.
the use of a word which imitates or suggests the sound that the thing makes
onomatopoeia ex.
“Snap, rustle, boom, murmur.”
onomatopoeia eff.
creates vivid imagery and can add excitement, action, and interest
internal rhyme def.
when a line of poetry contains a rhyme within a single line
internal rhyme ex.
“To the rhyming and the chiming of the bells.”
internal rhyme eff.
makes the poem more unified with rhyming
slant rhyme def.
when a poet creates a rhyme, but the two words do not rhyme exactly–they are merely similar
slant rhyme ex.
“I sat upon a stone, / And found my life has gone
slant rhyme eff.
catches the reader by surprise and subverts their expectations
end rhyme def.
when the last word of two different lines of poetry rhyme
end rhyme ex.
“Roses are red, violets are blue, / Sugar is sweet, and so are you.”
end rhyme eff.
makes it easier to remember and recite poetry. also gives poetry a musical quality
rhyme scheme def.
the pattern of a poem’s end rhymes
rhyme scheme ex.
A, B, A, B, C, D, C, D
rhyme scheme eff.
can give impact to the images created in the poem and help create internal rhythm to show meaning, emotion, or feeling
stressed and unstressed syllables def.
in every word of more than one syllable, one of the syllables is stressed, or said with more force than the other syllable(s)
stressed and unstressed syllables ex.
In the name “Nathan,” the first syllable is stressed. In the word “unhappiness,” the second of the four syllables is stressed
stressed and unstressed syllables eff.
allow poets to focus readers’ attention on the meaning of their poetry
meter def.
a regular pattern to the syllables in lines of poetry
meter ex.
“The itsy, bitsy spider.” (iambic trimeter)
meter eff.
helps reader understand rhythm because it relates to words and lines in a poem
free verse def.
poetry that doesn’t have much meter or rhyme
free verse ex.
TS Elliot’s “The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock” is a famous free verse where lines end in rhyme, but the rhymes follow no pattern or “The Red Wheelbarrow” by William Carlos William
iambic pentameter def.
poetry that is written in lines of 10 syllables, alternating stressed and unstressed syllables
iambic pentameter ex.
“Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day?”
iambic pentameter eff.
creates a conversational or natural feel to the poem
sonnet def.
a 14 line poem written in iambic pentameter. usually divided into three quatrains and a couplet
sonnet ex.
“Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day?” - William Shakespeare
sonnet eff.
affords a pleasant effect on the ear of the reader , and can create a musical effect
polysyndeton def.
when a writer creates a list of items which are all separated by conjunctions is used only before the last item in a list
polysyndeton ex.
“I walked the dog, and fed the cat, and milked the cows.” “Or if a soul touch any unclean thing, whether it be a carcass of an unclean beast, or a carcass of unclean cattle, or the carcass off unclean creeping things…he also shall be unclean.”
polysyndeton eff.
slows down the pace of the writing and/or adds an authoritative tone
pun def.
when a word that has two or more meanings is used in a humorous way
pun ex.
“My dog has a fur coat and pants!” “I was stirred by his cooking lesson.”
pun eff.
enhances interpretation of literary works and causes a reader to think about various meanings of a word or phrase
rhetoric def.
the art of effective communication
rhetoric ex.
“All blonds are dumb.”
rhetoric eff.
makes a point and lets the reader think about the question asked
Aristotle’s rhetorical triangle def.
the relationships, in any piece of writing, between the writer, the audience, and the subject
sarcasm def.
a generally bitter comment that is ironically or satirically worded
sarcasm ex.
“Well, what a surprise.”
sarcasm eff.
some authors use it to add humor
satire def.
a work that reveals a critical attitude toward some element of life to a humorous effect. it targets human vices or social institutions and conventions
romanticism def.
art of literature characterized by an idealistic, perhaps unrealistic view of people and the world, and an emphasis on nature
romanticism ex.
a poem titled A Poison Tree illustrates this because it deals with nature. the tree is also given human emotions
romanticism eff.
romanticism questions the settled way of thinking from the age of enlightenment
satire eff.
it’s often used to show foolishness or vice in humans or organizations
satire ex.
George Orwell’s 1945 novel Animal Farm is intended to target communism and Stalin-
sentence def.
a sentence is a group of words (including subject and verb) that expresses a complete thought
sentence ex.
She took courses in history and literature.
sentence eff.
sentences are supposed to convey a message about something in some way
appositive def.
a word or group of words placed beside a noun or noun substitute to supplement its meaning
appositive ex.
“Bob, the lumber yard worker, spoke with Judy, an accountant from the city.”
appositive eff.
appositive is supposed to provide information and gives meanings to different sentences
clause def.
a grammatical unit that contains both subject and a verb
clause ex.
“Other than baseball, football is my favorite sport.”
clause eff.
provides multiple ways to introduce a sentence and establishes the relationship of ideas
balanced sentence def.
a sentence in which two parallel elements are set off against each other like equal weights on a scale. both parts are parallel grammatically
balanced sentence ex.
“If a free society cannot help the many who are poor, it cannot save the few who are rich.”
balanced sentence eff.
gives rhythmical flow to the text and draws attention to the sentence
compound sentence def.
contains at least two independent clauses but no dependent clauses
compound sentence eff.
adds detail to a less informative simple sentence
compound ex.
“This house is too expensive, and that house is too small.”
complex sentence def.
contains only one independent clause and at least one dependent clause
complex sentence ex.
“Whenever he was lonely, Lance called his mother.”
complex sentence eff.
shows that one idea is more important than another
cumulative sentence def.
when the writer begins with an independent clause, then adds subordinate elements
cumulative sentence ex.
“He doubted whether he could ever again appear before an audience, his confidence broken, his limbs shaking, his collar wet with perspiration.” (opposite is periodic)
cumulative sentence eff.
expands or refines the main idea of a sentence
periodic sentence def.
when the main idea is not completed until the end of the sentence. the writer starts with subordinate elements and postpones the main clause
periodic sentence ex.
“His confidence broken, his limbs shaking, his collar wet with perspiration, he doubted whether he could ever again appear before an audience. (opposite is cumulative)
periodic sentence eff.
produces dramatic tension and suspense to the main point
simple sentence def.
contains only one independent clause
simple sentence eff.
meant to be clear and easy. can also creates tension
simple sentence ex.
“Joe waited for the train.”
declarative sentence def.
states an idea. it doesn’t give a command or request, nor does it ask a question
declarative sentence ex.
“The ball is round.”
declarative sentence eff.
to get a point across in a clear and concise way
imperative sentence def.
issues a command
imperative sentence ex.
“Kick the ball.”
imperative sentence eff.
sounds like speaker is bossing someone around and don’t leave room for discussion
interrogative sentence def.
sentences incorporating interrogative pronouns (what, which, who, whom, and whose)
interrogative sentence ex.
“To whom did you kick the ball?”
interrogative sentence eff.
force the reader to think about what was written
style def.
the choices in diction, tone, and syntax that a writer makes. it can be conscious or unconscious
style eff.
sets author apart and creates the “voice” that audiences hear
style ex.
“She picked a red rose from the ground.”
symbol def.
anything that represents or stands for something else. usually something concrete such as an object, actions, characters
symbol ex.
the whale in Moby Dick, the river and the jungle in Heart of Darkness, and the Raven in “The Raven.”
symbol eff.
represents something more abstract and makes literary works more complex
syntax/sentence variety def.
grammatical arrangement or grouping of words….length of a sentence, how the length relates to tone and meaning, the type (simple, complex, etc.) how do the sentences relate to each other
syntax/sentence variety ex.
“The boy ran hurriedly,” reads differently than, “Hurriedly, the boy ran.”
syntax/sentence variety eff.
achieve artistic effects, like mood, and tone
theme def.
the central idea or message of a work
theme ex.
common themes : love, revenge, patriotism, motherhood, etc.
theme eff.
helps to reach a new understanding of some aspect of the human condition
thesis def.
the sentence or groups of sentences that directly expresses that author’s opinion, purpose, meaning, or proposition (should be short and clear)
thesis ex.
“To make a peanut butter and jelly sandwich, you must procure the ingredients, find a knife, and spread the condiments
thesis eff.
summarizes the conclusion that the writer has reached
tone def.
a writer’s attitude toward his subject matter revealed through diction, figurative language and organization
tone ex.
playful, serious, businesslike, sarcastic, humorous, formal, somber, etc.
tone eff.
gives shape and life to a story and changes the meaning of the work
understatement def.
the ironic minimizing of fact, understatement presents something less significant than it is
understatement ex.
“Our defense played valiantly, and held the other team to merely eight touchdowns in the first quarter.”
understatement eff.
the effect can frequently be humorous
litotes def.
a particular form of understatement, generated by denying the opposite of the statement which otherwise would be used
litotes eff.
depending on the tone and context of the usage, litotes either retain the effect of understatement or becomes an intensifying expression
litotes ex.
Hitting that telephone pole certainly didn’t do your car any good or The flavors of the mushrooms, herbs, and spices combine to make the dish not at all disagreeable
argument def.
a piece of reasoning with one or more premises and a conclusion
argument ex.
premise : all spam is pink
premise : i am eating spam
conclusion : i am eating something that is pink
argument eff.
attracts the reader’s focus and shapes the outlook of readers
premises def.
statements offered as reasons to support a conclusion are premises
premises ex.
a couple seeing a movie chosen by one, because they saw a movie chosen by the other last week
conclusion def.
the end result of the argument–the main point being made
conclusion ex.
“Dogs are better pets than cats.”
conclusion eff.
finish convincing your reader
Aristotle’s appeals def.
the Greek philosopher Aristotle divided all means of persuasion (appeals) into three categories - ethos, pathos, and logos
Aristotle’s appeals eff.
the goal of argumentative writing is to persuade an audience that one’s ideas are valid
Aristotle’s appeals ex.
Pathos- a teenager tries to convince his parents to buy him a new car by saying if they cared about their child’s safety they’d upgrade him
ethos def.
being convinced by the credibility of the author
ethos ex.
“As a doctor, I am qualified to tell you that this course of treatment will likely generate the best results.”
ethos eff.
builds trust with the audience to persuade them
pathos def.
persuading by appealing to the reader’s emotions
pathos ex.
“If we don’t move soon, we’re all going to die! Can’t you see how dangerous it would be to stay?”
pathos eff.
establishes tone or mood and induces the audience
logos def.
persuading by the use of reasoning, using true premises and valid arguments. generally considered the strongest form of persuasion
logos ex.
“All men are mortal.”
logos eff.
appeals to reader’s intellects and makes them feel smart
concession def.
accepting at least part of all of an opposing viewpoint
concession eff.
often used to make one’s argument stronger by demonstrating that one is willing to accept what is obviously true and reasonable
concession ex.
when you are negotiating and you give in to something that the other side wants
conditional statement def.
an if-then statement and consists of two parts, an antecedent and a consequent
conditional statement ex.
“If you studied hard, then you will pass the test.”
conditional statement eff.
test condition and its outcome
contradiction def.
when one asserts two mutually exclusive propositions
contradiction ex.
“Abortion is wrong and abortion is not wrong.”
contradiction eff.
adding contradiction makes characters more interesting. the reasoning and space between the contradiction makes the character complex
counterexample def.
an example that runs counter to (opposes) a generalization, ths falsifying it
counterexample ex.
premise : jane argued that all whales are endangered
premise : belugas are a type of whale
premise : belugas are not endangered
conclusion : therefore, jane’s statement is unsound
counterexample eff.
exposes what is wrong with an argument that is invalid
deductive argument def.
an argument in which it is thought that the premises provide a guarantee of the truth of the conclusion
deductive argument eff.
premises are intended to provide support and make it impossible for the conclusion to be false
deductive argument ex.
“If it rains, it means that the sky is cloudy.”
fallacy def.
an attractive but unreliable piece of reasoning
fallacy ex.
appeal to authority, bad analogy, cliche thinking, etc
fallacy eff.
puts holes in an authors logic
ad hominem def.
latin for “against the man.” personally attacking your opponent rather than their argument
ad hominem ex.
A : “All murderers are criminals, but a thief isn’t a murderer, and so can’t be a criminal.
B : “Well you’re a thief and a criminal, so there goes your argument
ad hominem eff.
they’re usually used in literary works to point out a character’s biases
appeal to authority def.
the claim that because someone famous supports an idea, the idea must be right
appeal to authority ex.
kim kardashian advertising a lipstick brand
appeal to authority eff.
to get the reader to believe whatever the authority is saying
appeal to the bandwagon def.
the claim, as evidence to an idea, that many people believe it, or used to believe it, or do it
appeal to the bandwagon ex.
in the 1800s there was a widespread belief that bloodletting cured sickness. all these people were horribly wrong because it made people worse
appeal to the bandwagon eff.
this is supposed to make the reader feel like they’re missing out and in turn get on the bandwagon too
appeal to emotion def.
an attempt to replace a logical argument with an appeal to the audience’s emotions
appeal to emotion ex.
appeal to sympathy, appeal to revenge, appeal to patriotism (any emotion can be used as an appeal)
appeal to emotion eff.
encourages the audience to identify with your message on a visceral level and bypass intellectual filters, such as skepticism and logic
bad analogy def.
claiming that two situations are highly similar, when they aren’t
bad analogy ex.
“We have pure food and drug laws regulating what we put in our bodies; why can’t we have laws to keep musicians from giving us filth for the mind?”
bad analogy eff.
catch the reader’s attention to the mistake
cliche thinking def.
using as evidence a well-known saying as if it is proven, orif it has no exceptions
cliche thinking ex.
“I say : ‘America: love it or leave it.’ Anyone who disagrees with anything our country does must hate America. So maybe they should just move somewhere else.
cliche thinking eff.
weakens dramatic effect and suggests that the writer’s thinking isn’t original
false cause def.
assuming that because two things happened, the first one caused the second one
false cause ex.
“Before women got the vote, there were no nuclear weapons. Therefore women’s suffrage must have led to nuclear weapons
false cause eff.
influences the reader to think the same as the author
hasty generalization def.
a generalization based on too little or unrepresentative data
hasty generalization ex.
“My uncle didn’t go to college, and he makes a lot of money. So, people who don’t go to college do just as well as those who do.”
hasty generalization eff.
give an impression of something that isn’t grounded
non sequitur def.
a conclusion that does not follow from its premises; an invalid argument
non sequitur ex.
“Hinduism is one of the world’s largest religious groups. It is also one of the world’s oldest religions. Hinduism helps millions of people lead happier, more productive lives. Therefore the principles of Hinduism must be true.”
non sequitur eff.
they are frequently used in theatre and comedies to create comedic effect
slippery slope def.
the assumption that once started, a situation will continue to its most extreme possible outcome
slippery slope ex.
“If you drink a glass of wine, then you’ll soon be drinking all the time, and then you’ll become a homeless alcoholic.”
slippery slope eff.
if it leads to a positive outcome it can encourage people to act but if it’s negative it can discourage them
inductive argument def.
an argument in which it is thought that the premises provide reasons supporting the probable truth of the conclusion
inductive argument ex.
“A third marble from the bag is black. Therefore all the marbles in the bag are black.
inductive argument eff.
draws a relationship between facts
sound argument def.
a deductive argument is said to be sound if it meets two conditions : the line of reasoning from the premises to the conclusion is valid, and the premises are true
sound argument ex.
premise : in some states, no felons are eligible voters, that is, eligible to vote
premise : in those states, some professional athletes are felons
conclusion : therefore, in some states, some professional athletes are not eligible voters
sound argument eff.
establishes conclusive support for its conclusion
unstated premises def.
not every argument is fully expressed. sometimes premises or even conclusions are left unexpressed
unstated premises ex.
If one argues that Rover is smart because all dogs are smart, he is leaving unstated that Rover is a dog.
unstated premises eff.
can be problematic when two parties are having a discussion and making differing assumptions
valid argument def.
an argument is valid if the conclusion logically follows from the premises
valid argument ex.
premise : either Elizabeth owns a Honda or she owns a Saturn
premise : Elizabeth does not own a Honda
premise : therefore, Elizabeth owns a Saturn
valid argument eff.
valid arguments preserve the truth
alter-ego eff.
allows an escape from reality
classicism ex.
any architecture, painting or sculpture produced during the middle ages or later
classicism eff.
asserts the importance of wholeness and unity
denotation eff.
gives writers the opportunity to be as clear, direct, and precise as possible
synesthesia eff.
challenges readers to think out of the box and reinterpret their senses
parenthetical eff.
clarifies the information before or around it
free verse eff.
gives a greater freedom for choosing words, and conveying their meaning to the audience
Aristotle’s rhetorical triangle eff.
helps to break down the different parts of a literary work
Aristotle’s rhetorical triangle ex.
exigence, speaker, context, message, purpose, audience, and appeals
premises eff.
premises serve as a hook for the reader
