literally everything (B3.1, B3.2, B3.3)

Question 1

Gas Exchange

Answer 1

Gas exchange occurs primarily in the alveoli, and involves the diffusion of oxygen into the bloodstream and the removal of carbon dioxide from the blood into the lungs, facilitating cellular respiration and maintaining proper blood pH.

Question 2

Diffusion

Answer 2

Diffusion is a passive process that occurs across semi-permeable membranes, It is the movement of molecules from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration

Question 3

Concentration Gradient

Answer 3

A concentration gradient refers to the gradual difference in the concentration of solutes in a solution between two regions, such as between the alveoli and capillaries. The gradient drives diffusion, where particles move from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration, enabling processes like gas exchange, nutrient absorption, and waste removal.

Question 4

Aerobic Respiration

Answer 4

Aerobic respiration takes place in the mitochondria of cells and involves the breakdown of glucose in the presence of oxygen to produce ATP (energy), carbon dioxide, and water, fueling cellular activities necessary for life processes.

Question 5

Photosynthesis

Answer 5

Photosynthesis occurs in the chloroplasts of plant cells. It converts light energy into chemical energy by using carbon dioxide and water to produce glucose and oxygen,

Question 6

Trachea

Answer 6

The trachea is a tube-like structure made of C-shaped cartilaginous rings and provides a passageway for air to move between the larynx and the bronchi,

Question 7

Bronchus

Answer 7

The bronchi are branches of the trachea that lead into each lung, supported by cartilage rings to maintain their structure. They serve as major airways that direct air from the trachea into smaller bronchioles within the lungs, ensuring that air is distributed evenly throughout the lungs for gas exchange.

Question 8

Bronchioles

Answer 8

Bronchioles are smaller, branching airways within the lungs, composed of smooth muscle. They regulate airflow by constricting or dilating and directing air to the alveoli, where oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged between air and blood.

Question 9

Alveolus / Alveoli

Answer 9

Alveoli are tiny, spherical air sacs at the end of bronchioles, with thin walls (one cell thick) and a large surface area surrounded by a dense network of capillaries. They are the primary sites of gas exchange, allowing oxygen to diffuse into the blood and carbon dioxide to diffuse out,

Question 10

Lungs

Answer 10

The lungs are large, spongy, lobed organs made up of millions of alveoli, bronchi, bronchioles, and blood vessels, enclosed by a pleural membrane to reduce friction with the chest wall during breathing. They facilitate gas exchange by bringing air into close contact with the bloodstream, allowing oxygen to enter the blood and carbon dioxide to be expelled,

Question 11

Motile

Answer 11

An organism has the capability to move under its power. Through the use of the energy in the food, they eat to power muscles that allow them to move from place to place. For example, fish, birds, dogs.

Question 12

Sessile

Answer 12

An organism that is fixed in one place, immobile. For example barnacles.

Question 13

Muscle fibers

Answer 13

Long cells are formed by the fusion of many cells and are multinucleated which allows the muscles to move bones so you can perform lots of different movements.

Question 14

Sarcolemma

Answer 14

The plasma membrane of muscle fibers - controls what enters and exits the muscle fiber. The sarcolemma contains protein receptors for the neurotransmitter acetylcholine.

Question 15

Sarcoplasm

Answer 15

The cytoplasm of the muscle fiber - this is where the metabolism required for muscle contraction occurs.

Question 16

Sarcoplasmic Reticulum

Answer 16

A modified endoplasmic reticulum that stores calcium ions which are involved in muscle contraction.

Question 17

Myofibrils

Answer 17

Myofibrils are the contractile units of the muscle. They are composed of many repeating sarcomeres, that drive the contraction and relaxation of muscles.

Question 18

Sarcomeres

Answer 18

Sarcomeres are composed of strands of actin and myosin proteins. Sarcomeres are responsible for muscle contraction.

Question 19

Z lines

Answer 19

A protein band that defines the boundary between one sarcomere and the next in a muscle fiber.

Question 20

M lines

Answer 20

The fine vertical line in the center of the sarcomere links myosin (thick) filaments to each other in a lattice-like arrangement.

Question 21

Troponin

Answer 21

Troponin, or the troponin complex, is a complex of three regulatory proteins that are integral to muscle contraction in skeletal muscle and cardiac muscle, but not smooth muscle.

Question 22

Tropomyosin

Answer 22

Tropomyosin is a two-stranded alpha-helical, coiled-coil protein found in many animal and fungal cells. In animals, it is an important component of the muscular system which works in conjunction with troponin to regulate muscle contraction.

Question 23

Powerstroke

Answer 23

The myosin head moves toward the M line, pulling the actin along with it. As the actin is pulled, the filaments move approximately 10 nm toward the M line.

Question 24

Sliding Filament Theory

Answer 24

The myosin (thick filaments) of muscle fibers slide past the actin (thin filaments) during muscle contraction, while the two groups of filaments remain at relatively constant length.

Question 25

Actin

Answer 25

A family of globular multi-functional proteins that form microfilaments in the cytoskeleton, and the thin filaments in muscle fibrils. It is found in essentially all eukaryotic cells, where it may be present at a concentration of over 100 μM;

Question 26

Myosin

Answer 26

Myosins are a family of motor proteins best known for their roles in muscle contraction and in a wide range of other motility processes in eukaryotes. They are ATP-dependent and responsible for actin-based motility

Question 27

Titin

Answer 27

Titin is a long fibrous elastic protein that stretches from the Z line to the M line (in the middle of a sarcomere). Helps sarcomeres to recoil after stretching, and prevents over-extension of the muscle.

Question 28

Antagonistic Muscles

Answer 28

As one muscle contracts the other muscle relaxes or lengthens. The muscle that is contracting is called the agonist and the muscle that is relaxing or lengthening is called the antagonist.

Question 29

Motor Neurons

Answer 29

Motor neurons transmit action potentials from the central nervous system to an effector, such as a muscle or a gland. Motor neurons have a width of up to 100µm, but can have a length of over 1m in humans.

Question 30

Action Potentials

Answer 30

An action potential is a rapid sequence of changes in the voltage across a membrane. The membrane voltage, or potential, is determined at any time by the relative ratio of ions, extracellular to intracellular, and the permeability of each ion.

Question 31

Dendrites

Answer 31

The finger-like cells on the end of a neuron receive information from other neurons, called pre-synaptic neurons, or from the environment.

Question 32

Cell Body

Answer 32

The cell body is the spherical part of the neuron that contains the nucleus and connects to the dendrites, which bring information into the neuron and send information to other neurons. The job of the cell body is to control all of the functions of the cell.

Question 33

Axons

Answer 33

Carries electrical impulses that communicate within the brain and between the brain and the rest of the body.

Question 34

Schwann Cells

Answer 34

Cells of the peripheral nervous system that wrap around the axons of motor neurons to form the myelin sheath.

Question 35

Axon Terminals

Answer 35

Axon terminals are the ends of axons which transmit messages to other cells via use of neurotransmitters at synapses.

Question 36

Neuromuscular Junction

Answer 36

This is a synaptic connection between the terminal end of a motor nerve and a muscle (skeletal/ smooth/ cardiac). It is the site for the transmission of action potential from the nerve to the muscle.

Question 37

Synapse

Answer 37

A tiny gap that serves as the connection between the end of a nerve cell and another cell, or a nerve cell and a muscle fiber.

Question 38

Joint

Answer 38

The part of the body where two or more bones meet to allow movement.

Question 39

Synovial Joint

Answer 39

Prevents friction between the articulating bones involved in body movements. The joint cavity is surrounded by the articular capsule, a fibrous connective tissue attached to the joint's participating bones just beyond the articulating surface.

Question 40

Tendons

Answer 40

Soft, fibrous tissues that connect muscle to bone. They transfer muscle-generated force to the skeleton, facilitating movement around a joint, and as such they are relatively passive, inelastic structures, able to resist high forces.

Question 41

Ligaments

Answer 41

Connect two bones together, particularly in the joints: Like strong, firmly attached straps or ropes, they stabilize the joint or hold the ends of two bones together. This ensures that the bones in the joint don't twist too much or move too far apart and become dislocated

Question 42

Cartilage

Answer 42

Strong, flexible connective tissue that protects your joints and bones. It acts as a shock absorber throughout your body. Cartilage at the end of your bones reduces friction and prevents them from rubbing together when you use your joints.

Question 43

Synovial Fluid

Answer 43

A viscous solution found in the cavities of synovial joints. The principal role of it is to reduce friction between the articular cartilages of synovial joints during movement.

Question 44

Exoskeletons

Answer 44

A hard, protective covering is located on the exterior of an animal. offer animals protection and support for internal organs, soft tissues, and fluids.

Question 45

Ball and Socket Joint

Answer 45

A synovial joint, which means it allows for smooth movements between bones. The end of one bone within the joint is spherical, forming the ball, while the end of the other bone within the joint contains a rounded depression, forming the socket.

Question 46

Hinge Joint

Answer 46

A type of synovial joint that exists in the body and serves to allow motion primarily in one plane. Is made up of two or more bones with articular surfaces that are covered by hyaline cartilage and lubricated by synovial fluid.

Question 47

Flexion

Answer 47

A movement that causes the angle between the bones of a joint to decrease, such as when a person bends their elbow joint. Flexion movements occur in the sagittal plane (cuts the body into a left and right side) about the frontal axis (the horizontal line that passes through the body from right to left).

Question 48

Acetylcholine

Answer 48

Acetylcholine is an important neurotransmitter that plays a role in brain functions, such as memory, and body functions, such as muscle contractions to move your muscles.

Question 49

Joint capsule

Answer 49

A joint capsule or articular capsule is an envelope surrounding a synovial joint. Each joint capsule has two parts: an outer fibrous layer or membrane, and an inner synovial layer or membrane.

Question 50

Extention

Answer 50

The movement by which the two elements of any jointed part are drawn away from each other.

Question 51

Goniometry

Answer 51

A goniometer is a device that measures an angle or permits the rotation of an object to a definite position.

Question 52

Goniometer

Answer 52

A goniometer is a device that measures an angle or permits the rotation of an object to a definite position.

Question 53

Locomotion

Answer 53

Locomotion refers to the movement, or the ability to move, from place to place.

Question 54

Mammals

Answer 54

A mammal is a vertebrate animal of the class Mammalia. Mammals are characterized by the presence of milk-producing glands for feeding their young, fur or hair, and three middle ear bones

Question 55

Gills

Answer 55

Gills are filamentous, highly vascularized structures found in aquatic animals such as fish. Each gill consists of gill arches, filaments, and lamellae, which increase the surface area for gas exchange. They allow for the exchange of gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide) with water.

Question 56

Surfactant

Answer 56

Surfactant is a lipid-protein compound that linins the alveoli in a thin, fluid layer. It reduces surface tension in the alveoli, preventing their collapse during exhalation, and aids in maintaining the alveoli's structure, making it easier for the lungs to expand during breathing.

Question 57

Ventilation

Answer 57

Ventilation involves the movement of air in and out of the lungs through a series of airways (trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles) during breathing cycles. It ensures the continuous flow of fresh air into the lungs and the removal of carbon dioxide-laden air.

Question 58

Inspiration

Answer 58

Inspiration involves the diaphragm flattening and external intercostal muscles contracting, expanding the thoracic cavity, and lowering internal lung pressure. This creates a pressure gradient that causes air to flow into the lungs,

Question 59

Expiration

Answer 59

Expiration is a passive process during quiet breathing where the diaphragm and external intercostal muscles relax, reducing the thoracic cavity's volume. It increases the pressure in the lungs, forcing air out and expelling carbon dioxide from the body

Question 60

The diaphragm

Answer 60

The diaphragm is a dome-shaped muscle located beneath the lungs and separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominal cavity. It contracts and flattens during inspiration to increase thoracic volume and decrease pressure, drawing air into the lungs, and relaxes during expiration to allow air expulsion by reducing thoracic volume.

Question 61

Thorax

Answer 61

The thorax, or chest cavity, is a rigid structure formed by the rib cage, spine, and diaphragm, containing the lungs, heart, and major blood vessels. It houses and protects the respiratory and circulatory organs, and its movement during ventilation helps to increase or decrease lung volume, facilitating breathing.

Question 62

External Intercostal Muscles

Answer 62

These are bands of muscles located between the ribs, running diagonally from the lower edge of one rib to the upper edge of the rib below. During inspiration, they contract to pull the ribs upward and outward,

Question 63

Internal Intercostal Muscles

Answer 63

Internal intercostal muscles are found between the ribs, running perpendicular to the external intercostals, from the lower edge of one rib to the upper edge of the next. During forced expiration, they contract to pull the ribs downward and inward.

Question 64

Abdominal muscles

Answer 64

The abdominal muscles consist of a group of muscles located in the abdominal region. During forced expiration, these muscles contract, pushing the abdominal contents upward against the diaphragm, which further decreases thoracic volume and helps expel air from the lungs.

Question 65

Tidal Volume

Answer 65

Tidal volume refers to the volume of air inhaled or exhaled during a normal, unforced breath. It is a small but consistent quantity of air moved in and out of the lungs during quiet breathing.

Question 66

Inspiratory Reserve

Answer 66

The inspiratory reserve volume is the additional volume of air that can be inhaled with a maximal effort beyond the tidal volume. It provides extra capacity for oxygen intake during physical exertion or deep breathing.

Question 67

Expiratory Reserve

Answer 67

The expiratory reserve volume is the additional amount of air that can be forcibly exhaled after the end of a normal expiration. It allows for the expulsion of extra air from the lungs during physical exertion or forceful breathing.

Question 68

Vital Capacity

Answer 68

Vital capacity is the total amount of air that can be forcibly exhaled after a maximal inhalation. It includes tidal volume, inspiratory reserve volume, and expiratory reserve volume. It represents the maximum amount of air a person can utilize during intense physical activity or deep breathing.

Question 69

Spirometer

Answer 69

A spirometer is a device used to measure lung volumes and capacities, often consisting of a chamber and a mouthpiece connected to sensors that detect airflow and volume. Can help diagnose conditions like asthma or COPD

Question 70

Waxy Cuticle

Answer 70

The waxy cuticle is a thin, waterproof layer of lipids (cutin) found on the outer surface of plant leaves and stems. It prevents water loss through evaporation, helping the plant maintain water balance in terrestrial environments.

Question 71

Epidermis

Answer 71

The epidermis is the outermost layer of cells in plant leaves, stems, and roots, often covered by the waxy cuticle. In leaves, it consists of tightly packed, transparent cells. It serves as a protective barrier against physical damage, water loss, and pathogen invasion.

Question 72

Veins (Plant)

Answer 72

A vein in a plant is composed of bundles of vascular tissues (xylem and phloem) surrounded by supportive tissue, running throughout leaves, stems, and roots. It transports water, nutrients, and food throughout the plant.

Question 73

Xylem

Answer 73

The xylem is a tissue made up of hollow, tube-like structures composed of dead cells (tracheids and vessel elements), reinforced by lignin, forming long, continuous columns. It transports water and dissolved minerals from the roots to the leaves, using capillary action and transpiration pull,

Question 74

Phloem

Answer 74

Phloem consists of living cells (sieve tube elements and companion cells) arranged end-to-end in long columns, connected by sieve plates with pores that allow the flow of nutrients. It transports the products of photosynthesis, such as sugars and amino acids, from the leaves (source) to other parts of the plant (sink),

Question 75

Spongy mesophyll

Answer 75

The spongy mesophyll is a layer of loosely packed, irregularly shaped cells located below the palisade mesophyll in the leaf. The large air spaces between cells allow for gas exchange.

Question 76

Stomata

Answer 76

Stomata are small openings found primarily on the underside of leaves, consisting of two guard cells that regulate the opening and closing of the pore. They control gas exchange by allowing carbon dioxide to enter for photosynthesis and oxygen and water vapor to exit,

Question 77

Guard Cells

Answer 77

Guard cells are specialized, crescent-shaped cells that flank each stoma. They regulate the opening and closing of stomata by changing shape in response to water pressure, controlling gas exchange and water loss. When turgid, guard cells open the stomata; when flaccid, they close it to conserve water

Question 78

Plan Diagram

Answer 78

A plan diagram is a simplified, non-detailed drawing that represents the basic layout of tissues or structures in an organ (such as a leaf or root) as observed under a microscope. It provides a clear, structured representation of different tissue layers or sections without focusing on individual cells.

Question 79

Transpiration

Answer 79

Transpiration is the process of water vapor loss from the aerial parts of a plant, primarily through the stomata of leaves. It helps drive the movement of water and minerals from roots to leaves via the xylem (transpiration pull), and maintains water balance by regulating water loss.