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# Triangulating Research: Solid research draws from 3 kinds of evidence: * Electronic sources—Websites, DVDs, research databases, image databases, television and radio broadcasts, sound recordings, videos, podcasts, blogs * Print sources—Books, journals, magazines and newspapers, government publications, reference materials, microform/microfiche, press materials, pamphlets * Empirical sources—Experiments, surveys, interviews, field observations, ethnographies, case studies, archives

Answer 1

Triangulating Research: Solid research draws from 3 kinds of evidence: * Electronic sources—Websites, DVDs, research databases, image databases, television and radio broadcasts, sound recordings, videos, podcasts, blogs * Print sources—Books, journals, magazines and newspapers, government publications, reference materials, microform/microfiche, press materials, pamphlets * Empirical sources—Experiments, surveys, interviews, field observations, ethnographies, case studies, archives

Answer 2

Elements of an e-mail, letter, or memo: 1. Header 1. Introduction—Subject, purpose, main point, background information, importance of the subject 1. Body—Discussion topics, usually with one paragraph per topic 1. Conclusion—Thank you, main point (restated), and a look to the future

Answer 3

Guidelines to follow when writing an e-mail, letter, or memo of inquiry: * Clearly identify your subject and purpose. * State your questions clearly and concisely. * Limit your questions to five or fewer. * If possible, offer something in return. * Thank readers in advance for their response. * Provide contact information (address, e-mail address, or phone number).

Answer 4

Guidelines to follow when writing a response: * Thank the writer for the inquiry. * Clearly state the subject and purpose of the e-mail, letter, or memo. * Answer any questions point by point. * Offer more information, if available. * Provide contact information (address, e-mail address, or phone number).

Answer 5

Guidelines to follow when writing a claim: * State the subject and purpose clearly and concisely. * Explain the problem in detail. * Describe how the problem inconvenienced you. * State what you would like the receiver to do to address the problem. * Thank your reader for his or her response to your request. * Provide contact information.

Answer 6

Guidelines to follow when writing an adjustment: * Express regret for the problem without directly taking blame. * State clearly what you are going to do about the problem. * Tell your reader when he or she should expect results. * Show appreciation for his or her continued business with your company. * Provide contact information.

Answer 7

Guidelines for writing a refusal: * State your subject. * Summarize your understanding of the facts. * Deliver the bad news, explaining your reasoning. * Offer any alternatives, if they are available. * Express a desire to retain the relationship. * Provide contact information.

Answer 8

Guidelines for using graphics in technical description or specification: * Use a title and figure number with each graphic, if possible. * Refer to the graphic by number in the written text. * Include a caption that explains what the graphic shows. * Label specific features in the graphic. * Place the graphic on the page where it is referenced or soon afterward.

Answer 9

Writing Effective Steps: * Use command voice. * State one action per step. * Keep the steps concise. * Number the steps. * Add comments, notes, or examples. * Provide feedback. * Refer to the graphics.

Answer 10

Labeling Hazards: * Danger—Risk of serious injury or death is possible. * Warning—Injury likely if step is handled improperly. * Caution—Damage to the product or equipment is possible.

Answer 11

Proposals usually include five sections: 1. introduction 1. current situation 1. project plan 1. qualifications 1. costs and benefits

Answer 12

At a Glance: The Current Situation: * Define and describe the problem. * Discuss the causes of the problem. * Discuss the effects if nothing is done about the problem.

Answer 13

The Project Plan for a proposal: * Identify the solution. * State the objectives of the plan. * Describe the plan’s major and minor steps. * Identify the deliverables or outcomes.

Answer 14

Concluding a Proposal: * Restate the proposal’s main point (the solution). * Say thank you. * Describe the next step. * Provide contact information.

Answer 15

A brief report typically includes the following sections: * introduction * summary of activities * results of activities * future activities * expenses * conclusion

Answer 16

Researching in Technical Workplaces: 1. Define your research subject 1. Formulate a research question or hypothesis 1. Develop a research methodology 1. Collect evidence through sources 1. Triangulate your sources 1. Take careful notes 1. Appraise your evidence 1. Revise, accept, or abandon your hypothesis

Answer 17

At a Glance: Triangulating Research: Solid research draws from three kinds of evidence: * Electronic sources—Websites, DVDs, research databases, image databases, television and radio broadcasts, sound recordings, videos, podcasts, blogs * Print sources—Books, journals, magazines and newspapers, government publications, reference materials, microform/microfiche, press materials, pamphlets * Empirical sources—Experiments, surveys, interviews, field observations, ethnographies, case studies, archives

Answer 18

At a Glance: Assessing Your Information: * Is the source reliable? * How biased is the source? * Am I biased? * Is the source up to date? * Can the evidence be verified? * Have I plagiarized my sources?

Answer 19

Document your sources. Documentation involves: * naming each source with an in-text citation and * recording your sources in the References list at the end of the document.

Answer 20

Documenting your sources offers the advantages of: * supporting your claims by referring to the research of others. * helping build your credibility with readers by showing them the support for your ideas. * reinforcing the thoroughness of your research methodology. * allowing your readers to explore your sources for more information.

Answer 21

To paraphrase something, you should: * reorganize the information to highlight important points. * use plain language, replacing jargon and technical terms with simpler words. * include an in-text citation.

Answer 22

When you are summarizing a source for your notes: * Read the source carefully to gain an overall understanding. * Highlight or underline the main point and other key points. * Condense key points into lists, where appropriate. * Organize information from most important to least important. * Use plain language to replace any technical terms or jargon in the original. * Use in-text citations to identify important ideas from the source.

Answer 23

Some commonly documented materials include the following: * Quotes or ideas taken from someone else’s work—If others wrote it or thought it before you did, you must cite them as the owners of their words and ideas. Otherwise, you might be accused of lifting their work. * Materials that support your ideas—You can build the credibility of your work by showing that others have discussed the topic before. * Sources of any data or facts—Any numbers or facts that you did not generate yourself need to be carefully cited and documented. That way, readers can check your sources for accuracy. * Materials that refer to your subject—By citing sources, including those with which you disagree, you show that you have a comprehensive understanding of the issues involved. * Historical sources on your subject—To build a background for readers to understand your subject, include any sources that might help them understand its history. * Graphics taken from online or print sources—Sometimes you will need permission to use nonprint and online sources. Minimally, though, you must cite the sources from which you obtained them.

Answer 24

At a Glance: Six Moves in an Introduction: * Move 1: Define your subject. * Move 2: State your purpose. * Move 3: State your main point. * Move 4: Stress the importance of the subject. * Move 5: Provide background information. * Move 6: Forecast the content.

Answer 25

Conclusions usually include up to five closing moves: (1) make an obvious transition (2) restate your main point (3) reemphasize the importance of the subject (4) look to the future (5) say thank you and offer contact information.

Answer 26

The major patterns of arrangement for the body of a document: The beginning of a document (introduction) builds a context. The middle (body) provides the content. And the end (conclusion) rebuilds the context.

Answer 27

Major patterns of arrangement for the body of a: Application letter: In the body of the letter, you should include two to three paragraphs that show how your educational background, work experience, and skills fit the employer’s needs. You should organize the body of your letter to highlight your strengths. If your educational background is your best asset, put that paragraph right after the letter’s introduction (Figure 5.7). If your work experience is stronger than your education, then put that information up front (Figure 5.8). In the body, you need to back up your claims with facts, examples, details, and reasoning—you need proof. You should breathe life into your letter by telling stories about yourself.

Answer 28

Major patterns of arrangement for the body of a: Email, letter, or memo: Body paragraphs provide need-to-know information. The body of the correspondence should give readers the information they need to take action or to make a decision. As shown in Figure 6.8, the body is the largest part of your message to the readers, and it will consist of one or more paragraphs. As you begin drafting the body of your text, divide your subject into the two to five major topics you need to discuss with your readers. Each of these major topics will likely receive one or more paragraphs of coverage. Body: Discussion topics, usually with one paragraph per topic.

Answer 29

Major patterns of arrangement for the body of a: Technical descriptions and specifications: Body paragraphs partition the subject into its features, functions, or stages. The body of your description will concentrate on describing your subject’s features, functions, or stages. Address each major part separately, defining it and describing it in detail. Within your description of each major part, identify and describe the minor parts.

Answer 30

Major patterns of arrangement for the body of a: Instructions and documentation: The body describes the steps required to complete the task.

Answer 31

Major patterns of arrangement for the body of a: Proposals: Body—Discuss the causes of the problem, showing how these causes brought about the problem. The current situation section includes an opening, a body, and a closing. The causes of the problem are discussed mainly in the body paragraphs, while the effects are usually discussed at the end of the section. Body—Walk the readers through your plan step-by-step. Address each major step separately, discussing the minor steps needed to achieve that major step. It is also helpful to tell readers why each major and minor step is needed. An effective project plan section includes an opening, a body, and a closing. The opening states the solution and offers some objectives. The body walks the readers through the plan’s steps. The closing identifies the major deliverables of the plan.

Answer 32

Major patterns of arrangement for the body of a: Brief reports: In the body of the brief report, you should include some or all of the following: * Summary of activities—In chronological order, summarize the project’s two to five major events since your previous brief report. Highlight any advances or setbacks in the project. * Results of activities or research—In order of importance, list the two to five most significant results or outcomes of your project. To help a reader scan, you might even use bullets to highlight these results. * Future activities or research—Tell readers what you will be doing during the next work period. * Expenses—If asked, you should state the costs incurred over the previous week or month. Highlight any places where costs are deviating from the project’s budget.

Answer 33

Major patterns of arrangement for the body of a: Formal reports: Typically, large, major sections in reports have their own opening, body, and closing. Organize and draft your report following the separate “moves” for an introduction, body, and conclusion. Following the introduction, reports typically include a methodology section that describes step-by-step how the study was conducted. This section should include an opening, body, and closing: * In the opening paragraph, describe your overall approach to collecting information in one or two sentences (Figure 11.6). If you are following an established methodology, you might mention where it has been used before and who used it. * In the body of your methodology section, walk your readers step-by-step through the major parts of your study. After you describe each major step, you should also discuss the minor steps that were part of it. * In the closing paragraph, you should discuss some of the limitations of the study. For example, your study may have been conducted with a limited sample (e.g., college students at a small Midwestern university). By identifying your study’s limitations, you will show your readers that you are aware that other conditions may yield different results.

Answer 34

Major patterns of arrangement for the body of a: Presentation: Tell them what you’re going to tell them. Tell them. Tell them what you told them. In other words, like any document, your presentation should have a beginning (introduction), a middle (body), and an end (conclusion) (Figure 20.5). The body of your presentation is where you are going to do the heavy lifting. Start out by dividing your subject into two to five major topics that you want to discuss. * Problem, Need, Solution: This pattern is most effective for proposing new ideas. After your introduction, offer a clear definition of the problem or opportunity you are discussing. Then, specify what is needed to solve the problem or take advantage of the opportunity. Finally, offer a solution/plan that achieves the objective. * Chronological: When you are organizing material chronologically, divide the subject into two to five major time periods. Then, lead the audience through these time periods, discussing the relevant issues involved in each. In some cases, a three-part past-present-future pattern is a good way to organize a presentation. * Spatial: You might be asked to explain or demonstrate visual spaces, like building plans, organizational structures, or diagrams. In these cases, divide the subject into two to five zones. Then, walk your audience through these zones, showing each zone individually and discussing how it relates to the zones around it. * Narrative: Audiences always like stories, so you might organize your presentation around the narrative pattern. Narratives typically (1) set a scene, (2) introduce a complication, (3) evaluate the complication, (4) resolve the complication, and (5) explain what was learned from the experience. * Methods, Results, Discussion: This pattern is commonly used to present the results of research. This pattern (1) describes the research plan or methodology, (2) presents the results of the study, (3) discusses and interprets the results, and (4) makes recommendations. * Causes and Effects: This pattern is common for problem-solving. Begin the body of the presentation by discussing the causes for the current situation. Then, later in the body, discuss the effects of these causes and their likely outcomes. You can also alternate between causes and effects. In other words, discuss a cause and its effect together. Then, discuss another cause and its effect, and so on. * Description by Features or Functions: If you are demonstrating a product or process, divide your subject into its two to five major features or functions. Then, as you discuss each of these major features/functions, you can discuss the minor features/functions that are related to them. * Comparison and Contrast: Usually this pattern is followed when the speaker is comparing something new or unfamiliar with something that the audience knows well. Choose two to five major points on which these two things can be compared and contrasted. Then, compare and contrast them point by point. * There are countless patterns available for organizing the body of your presentation. The ones shown in Figure 20.7 are some of the most common in technical communication. These patterns are not formulas to be followed in lockstep. Rather, they can be manipulated to fit a variety of speaking situations.

Answer 35

Major patterns of arrangement for the body of a: Webpage: Body—The body of the webpage will usually include at most two to five paragraphs. A good guideline is to keep the complete content of each page within one and a half screens. In other words, readers should not need to scroll down more than half a screen to read all the information on the page.

Answer 36

At a Glance: Five Moves in a Conclusion: Move 1: Make an obvious transition. Move 2: Restate your main point. Move 3: Reemphasize the importance of the subject. Move 4: Look to the future. Move 5: Say thank you and offer contact information.

Answer 37

Typical patterns for organizing 1. Letters, Memos, and E-mails: 1. Header - with the company name and address of the sender, as well as recipient’s name and address, and Greeting or salutation for the recipient (not included in memos) 1. Introduction with main point 1. Body paragraphs: Topic 1, Topic 2... 1. Conclusion with main point 1. Signature of the sender (not included in memos)

Answer 38

Typical patterns for org'g 2. Technical Descriptions and Specifications: 1. Title - specific to the subject being described 1. Introduction: 1. Definition of subject 1. Purpose statement 1. Main point 1. Importance of subject 1. Overall description 1. List of Major Parts 1. Body paragraphs - partition the subject into its features, functions, or stages 1. Major Part 1 1. Definition and purpose of part 1. Minor Part 1. Minor Part... 1. Major Part 2... 1. Graphics - illustrate the subject and its parts 1. Conclusion - if needed, that describes the subject in operation / shows the subject working or in action 1. Importance of subject 1. Future of subject 1. One operating cycle

Answer 39

Typical patterns for org'g 3. Instructions and Documentation: Instructions and Procedures: 1. Title 1. Introduction and background 1. List of materials, parts, tools, and conditions 1. Safety information 1. Step One, Step Two... with graphics 1. Conclusion 1. Troubleshooting (if needed) Specifications: 1. Title 1. Introduction 1. Materials and conditions 1. Step One, Step Two... 1. Measurement, test, and quality control procedures

Answer 40

Typical patterns for org'g 4. Proposals: Proposals: 1. Front matter 1. Introduction 1. Body: (graphics, pictures, tables, graphs can be used throughout body of proposal) 1. Current situation - explains the problem, including causes and effects 1. Project plan - shows step-by-step how the problem could be solved 1. Qualifications - who will participate in the project 1. Costs and benefits 1. Budget 1. Conclusion 1. Back matter

Answer 41

Typical patterns for org'g 5. Activity Reports = Brief Reports: Brief Reports: 1. Introduction 1. Body: (graphics, charts, and illustrations can be used throughout) 1. Summary of activities 1. Results of activities 1. Future activities 1. Expenses incurred within the reporting period 1. Conclusion

Answer 42

Typical patterns for org'g 6. Analytical Reports = Formal Reports: Formal Reports: typically follow the IMRaD pattern (Introduction, Methodology, Results and Discussion) 1. Front matter 1. Introduction 1. Body: (can include tables, graphs, and other graphics) 1. Methodology 1. Results 1. Discussion 1. Conclusion (Recommendations) 1. Back matter

Answer 43

At a Glance: Eight Guidelines for Plain Sentences: * Guideline 1: The subject of the sentence should be what the sentence is about. * Guideline 2: The subject should be the “doer” in the sentence. * Guideline 3: The verb should state the action, or what the doer is doing. * Guideline 4: The subject of the sentence should come early in the sentence. * Guideline 5: Eliminate nominalizations. * Guideline 6: Eliminate excessive prepositional phrases. * Guideline 7: Eliminate redundancy in sentences. * Guideline 8: Write sentences that are “breathing length.”

Answer 44

Eight guidelines to write plainer sentences in technical documents: * Guideline 1: Make the Subject of the Sentence What the Sentence Is About * Guideline 2: Use The “Doer” As the Subject of the Sentence * Guideline 3: Use a Verb to Express the Action, Or What the Doer Is Doing * Guideline 4: Put the Subject of the Sentence Early in the Sentence * Guideline 5: Eliminate Nominalizations * Guideline 6: Eliminate Excessive Prepositional Phrases * Guideline 7: Eliminate Redundancy in Sentences * Guideline 8: Write Sentences That Are “Breathing Length”

Answer 45

At a Glance: Four Kinds of Sentences in a Paragraph: * Transition sentence (optional) * Topic sentence * Support sentence * Point sentence (optional)

Answer 46

To write plain sentences, follow these eight guidelines: (1) identify your subject (2) make the “doer” the subject of the sentence (3) put the doer’s action in the verb (4) move the subject of the sentence close to the beginning of the sentence (5) eliminate nominalizations (6) eliminate excess prepositional phrases (7) eliminate redundancy (8) make sure that sentences are “breathing length”

Answer 47

Writing plain paragraphs: four types of sentences: * transitional and point sentences, which are optional * topic and support sentences, which are necessary

Answer 48

Techniques for writing persuasively include: * elevating the tone * using similes, analogies, and metaphors * changing the pace

Answer 49

Two Common Styles in Technical Communication: * Plain style—Stresses clear wording and simple prose. * Persuasive style—Is used to influence people to accept your ideas and take action.

Answer 50

When it is appropriate to use the plain writing style: * When stressing clarity and accuracy * Audiences in China may prefer plain style to persuasive style, even when persuasion is your goal * On resumes (depending on the industry) * Letters and memos * To highlight important concepts * Most technical descriptions and specifications * Formal reports * To sound straightforward and clear * To be direct and concise * In proposals, along with the persuasive style. Plain style is good for the current situation section, the project plan section, and the qualifications section. Proposals should use a combination of plain and persuasive styles to motivate readers. * Brief reports * Technical communication most often uses plain or persuasive style (and not grand style) * When paraphrasing ideas * When replacing jargon and technical terms * When writing a summary * When writing and delivering speeches you know will be translated into other languages

Answer 51

Guidelines to help you navigate transcultural communications: Guideline 1: Develop long-term relationships Guideline 2: Use intermediaries to build relationships Guideline 3: Rely on facts and reasoning Guideline 4: Avoid arguing strongly for or against Guideline 5: Strive to reach consensus Guideline 6: Speak collectively, not individually Guideline 7: Be patient and wait for the “point” Guideline 8: Remember that “no” is rarely used Guideline 9: Don’t be informal Guideline 10: Defer to hierarchy Guideline 11: Minimize emotions

Answer 52

When it is appropriate to use the persuasive writing style: * To explain innovative ideas * Application letters * Sales literature * Proposals - especially in places where readers are expected to make decisions, such as the proposal’s introduction and the costs and benefits section. Proposals should use a combination of plain and persuasive styles to motivate readers. * Recommendation reports * Briefings * Conclusions * Letters * Articles * Public presentations * Persuasive style should be used to add energy and color. It should also be used in places in the document where readers are expected to make a decision or to take action. The use of tone, similes, analogies, and metaphors in strategic places should encourage readers to do what you want. You can use short or long sentences to adjust the intensity of your prose.

Answer 53

Plain Style: * informs * describes * defines * reviews * demonstrates * instructs * advises * announces * explains * notifies * stresses clarity and accuracy; clear words, simple prose * instructs, teaches, or presents information * technical descriptions, instructions, activity reports

Answer 54

Persuasive Style: * persuades * convinces * influences * supports * changes * advocates * recommends * defends * justifies * urges * motivates readers; adds energy and color * influences people to accept your ideas and take action * proposals, letters, articles, public presentations, some reports

Answer 55

At a Glance: Reasoning-Based Persuasion: * If . . . then * Either . . . or * Cause and effect * Costs and benefits * Better and worse * For example, * Experiences and observations * Facts and data * Quotes from experts

Answer 56

At a Glance: Values-Based Persuasion: * Goals * Needs * Shared values * Attitudes * Framing * Reframing

Answer 57

At a Glance: Persuasive Style Techniques: * Elevate the tone. * Use similes and analogies. * Use metaphors. * Change the pace.

Answer 58

Change the Pace: * Long sentences = low intensity. Long sentences slow the reading down. * Short sentences = high intensity. Shorter sentences raise the "heartbeat" of the text.

Answer 59

Four strategies for improving the writing style on websites: * Keep sentences short * Keep paragraphs short * Links should reflect titles * Create a consistent tone

Answer 60

Strategies for improving readability of websites for global audiences: * Use common words—Try to use words that are commonly defined in English. The meanings of slang and jargon words change quickly, sometimes leaving international readers confused. * Avoid clichés and colloquialisms—Informal American English includes phrases like “piece of cake” or “miss the boat” that could be confusing to people from other cultures. Also, sports metaphors like “kickoff meeting” or “hit a home run” sound very odd to people who are not familiar with American football and baseball. * Avoid cultural icons—Symbols, especially religious symbols, should be avoided where possible and carefully used where necessary. * Minimize humor—Humor does not translate well across cultures because most jokes or funny sayings are culturally dependent. So, attempts to be funny on your website might be offensive or just confusing. * Translate the website—If your company regularly does business with people from a specific country or culture, you should translate your website into the readers’ language. Otherwise, transcultural readers can use Google Translate or Bing Translator to convert your website into their own languages (Figure 21.7).

Answer 61

The four types of sentences: * Transition Sentence - The purpose of a transition sentence is to make a smooth bridge from the previous paragraph to the present paragraph. * Topic Sentence - The topic sentence is the claim or statement that the rest of the paragraph is going to prove or support. The topic sentence sets a goal for the paragraph. It tells readers the claim the writer is trying to prove. Then, the remainder of the paragraph proves that claim. The topic sentence is the most important sentence in any given paragraph. Since readers, especially readers who are scanning, tend to pay the most attention to the beginning of a paragraph, placing the topic sentence up front ensures that they will read it. * Support Sentences - The bulk of any paragraph is typically made up of support sentences. These sentences contain examples, reasoning, facts, data, anecdotes, definitions, and descriptions. * Point Sentences - Point sentences restate the paragraph’s main point toward the end of the paragraph. They are used to reinforce the topic sentence by restating the paragraph’s original claim in new words. Point sentences are especially useful in longer paragraphs where readers may not fully remember the claim stated at the beginning of the paragraph. They often start with transitional devices like “Therefore,” “Consequently,” or “In sum,” to signal that the point of the paragraph is being restated.

Answer 62

The four persuasion techniques: 1. Elevate the tone 1. Use Similes and Analogies 1. Use Metaphor 1. Change the Pace

Answer 63

The Five Principles of Visual Design: * Balance * Alignment * Grouping * Consistency * Contrast

Answer 64

Use these consistently in your document: * Typefaces (serif and sans serif) * Labeling of graphics * Lists (sequential and nonsequential) * Headers and footers

Answer 65

Good design allows readers to: 1. easily scan a document 1. access the document to find the information they need 1. understand the content more readily, and 1. appreciate the appearance of the document

Answer 66

Four visual design considerations for culturally shallow documents: * Use of color—Choice of colors in a document can influence how transcultural readers interpret the message because colors can have different meanings across cultures. * Use of people—Transcultural texts should use images of people carefully. Avoid big smiles, highly emotional expressions, suggestive behavior, and flashy clothing. * Use of symbols—Common symbols can have very different meanings in different cultures. * Direction of reading—Many cultures in the Middle East and Asia read right to left instead of left to right. As a result, some of the guidelines for balancing a page design discussed earlier in this chapter should be reversed.

Answer 67

Four guidelines for using graphics in documents: Graphics should: (1) tell a simple story; (2) reinforce the text, not replace it; (3) be ethical; and (4) be properly labeled and placed on the page.

Answer 68

At a Glance: Guidelines for Using Graphics: * A graphic should tell a simple story. * A graphic should reinforce the written text, not replace it. * A graphic should be ethical. * A graphic should be labeled and placed properly.

Answer 69

Format Choices in a presentation: * Title each slide with an action-oriented heading. * Put five or fewer items on each slide. If you have more than five points to make about a topic, divide the topic into two slides. * Use left-justified text in most cases. Centered text should be used infrequently, and right-justified text, almost never. * Use lists instead of paragraphs or sentences. * Use icons and graphics to keep your slides fresh for the audience.

Answer 70

At a Glance: Opening Moves in a Presentation: * Define the subject. * State the purpose of your presentation. * State your main point. * Stress the importance of the subject to the audience. * Offer background information on the subject. * Forecast the structure of the presentation.

Answer 71

At a Glance: Concluding Moves in a Presentation: * Signal that you are concluding. * Restate your key points. * Reemphasize the importance of the subject. * Call the audience to action. * Look to the future. * Say thank you. * Ask for questions.

Answer 72

At a Glance: Creating Your Presentation Style: * Choose a persona. * Set a theme. * Show enthusiasm. * KISS: Keep It Simple (Stupid).

Answer 73

Font Choices for a presentation: * Use a simple typeface that is readable from a distance. Sans serif fonts are often more readable from a distance than serif fonts. * Use a minimum of a 36-point font for headings and a minimum of a 24-point font for body text. * Use color to keep slides interesting and to improve retention. * Do not use ALL UPPERCASE letters because they are hard to read from a distance.

Answer 74

Guidelines for using graphics in a presentation: * Make sure words or figures in the graphic are large enough to be read from a distance. * Label each graphic with a title. * Keep graphics uncomplicated and limited to simple points. * Keep tables small and simple. Large tables full of data do not work well as visuals because the audience will not be able to read them—nor will they want to. * Use clip art or photos to add life to your slides, but don’t overdo the clip art. Graphics, including clip art and photos, should never be used merely to decorate your slides. They should reinforce the content, organization, and style of your presentation.

Answer 75

At a Glance: Five Principles of Design: * Balance * Alignment * Grouping * Consistency * Contrast

Answer 76

Basic weighting guidelines for a page or screen: * Items on the right side of the page weigh more than items on the left. * Items on the top of the page weigh more than items on the bottom. * Big items weigh more than small items. * Pictures weigh more than written text. * Graphics weigh more than written text. * Colored items weigh more than black-and-white items. * Items with borders around them weigh more than items without borders. * Irregular shapes weigh more than regular shapes. * Items in motion weigh more than static items.

Answer 77

White spaces are places where no text or images appear on the page: * the margins of the document. * the space around a list. * the area between an image and the body text. * the space between two paragraphs.

Answer 78

Use design features consistently throughout a document or website: * Headings should be predictable. * Pages should follow the same grid. * Lists should use consistent bulleting or numbering schemes. * Page numbers should appear in the same place on each page.

Answer 79

The following items should be used consistently in your document: * Typefaces (serif and sans serif) * Labeling of graphics * Lists (sequential and nonsequential) * Headers and footers

Answer 80

Ways to add contrast to a page: * color * shading * highlighting * changes in font sizes

Answer 81

When developing a culturally shallow design, remember: * use of color * use of people * use of symbols * direction of reading

Answer 82

Guidelines for using symbols transculturally: * Keep human icons simple * Use hand signals carefully * Avoid culture-specific icons * Avoid religious symbols * Avoid animal symbols and mascots

Answer 83

Guidelines for using graphics effectively: * Guideline One: A Graphic Should Tell a Simple Story * Guideline Two: A Graphic Should Reinforce the Written Text, Not Replace It * Guideline Three: A Graphic Should Be Ethical * Guideline Four: A Graphic Should Be Labeled and Placed Properly

Answer 84

What each graphic is best used for: * Line graph = I want to show a trend * Bar chart = I want to compare two or more quantities * Table = I need to present data or facts for analysis and comparison * Pie chart = I need to show how a whole is divided into parts * Flowchart = I need to show how things, people, or steps are linked together * Gantt chart = I need to show how a project will meet its goals over time

Answer 85

Choices for presentation technology, presenting to 10 or more people: * Digital projector with computer * Overhead projector * 35-mm slide projector * Whiteboard or chalkboard

Answer 86

Choices for presentation technology, presenting to fewer than 10 people: * Digital projector with computer * Overhead projector with transparencies * 35-mm slide projector * Flip charts * Large notepads * Digital video on TV monitor (DVD or CD-ROM) * Posters * Handouts * Computer screen * Whiteboard or chalkboard

Answer 87

The names of the four levels of editing: 1. Revising - Revises the document as a whole, which is why this level of edit is often called “global editing.” Revision pays attention to the document’s subject, purpose, readers, and context of use. 1. Substantive editing - Pays special attention to the content, organization, and design of the document. 1. Copyediting - Concentrates on revising the style for clarity, persuasion, and consistency, especially at the sentence and paragraph levels. 1. Proofreading - Catches only the grammatical mistakes, misspellings, and usage problems.

Answer 88

Documents and presentations can be edited at four different levels: 1. Revising (global editing) 2. subject 3. purpose 4. readers 5. context of use 1. Substantive editing 2. content 3. organization 4. design of the document 1. Copyediting - revising for 2. clarity 3. persuasion 4. consistency, especially at the sentence and paragraph levels 1. Proofreading 2. grammatical mistakes 3. misspellings 4. usage problems

Answer 89

How to determine the appropriate level of edit for a document: (a) how much time you have, and (b) the quality needed in the document.

Answer 90

Usability tests, from most informal to most formal: 1. document markup 1. read and locate test 1. summary test 1. protocols 1. journal or tape recording 1. surveying 1. interviewing 1. focus groups 1. laboratory testing

Answer 91

The four questions used to help design usability tests: 1. Can they find it? 1. Can they understand it? 1. Can they do it? 1. Is it safe?

Answer 92

Common copyediting symbols to know: See page 541. Here is the list (minus the symbols): * insert * delete * close up space * insert space * transpose * capital letters * lowercase * lowercase, several letters * italics * boldface * delete italics or boldface * normal type (roman) * add period * add comma * add colon * add semicolon * add quotation marks * add apostrophe * begin new paragraph * remove paragraph break * indent text * move text left * block text * spell out (abbreviations or numbers)

Answer 93

At a Glance: Guidelines for Revising (Level 1): * Subject—Is the subject too narrow or too broad? * Purpose—Does the document achieve its stated purpose? * Readers—Is the document appropriate for the readers? * Context of use—Is the document appropriate for its context of use?

Answer 94

At a Glance: Guidelines for Substantive Editing (Level 2): * Content—Are there any digressions or gaps in content? * Organization—Does the document conform to a recognizable genre or pattern? * Design—Do the page layout and graphics enhance the readability of the document?

Answer 95

At a Glance: Guidelines for Copyediting (Level 3): * Sentences—Are the sentences clear and concise? * Paragraphs—Do the paragraphs have a clear topic sentence and support? * Headings—Do the headings help the readers scan for important information? * Graphics—Do the graphics support the written text?

Answer 96

At a Glance: Guidelines for Proofreading (Level 4): * Grammar—Are all the sentences grammatically correct? * Punctuation—Are the sentences properly punctuated? * Spelling and typos—Are there any spelling errors or typos? * Word usage—Are all the words used properly?

Answer 97

For effective usability testing, identify objectives for the document: 1) how well the users can find information 2) how well they understand important ideas 3) how well they perform tasks described in the document

Answer 98

When running an understandability test, ask readers: 1. What is the purpose of this document? 1. What is the document’s main point? 1. Can you tell me three major points that are made in the document?

Answer 99

Performance tests: * Protocols * Journal or tape recording * Surveying * Interviewing * Focus groups * Laboratory testing

Answer 100

Safety tests: Laboratory testing

Answer 101

Common grammatical errors found in technical documents: * comma splice - Two or more distinct sentences are joined only by a comma. * run-on sentence - The sentence is composed of two or more distinct sentences. * fragment - The sentence is incomplete, usually missing a subject or a verb. * dangling modifier - A modifier (usually an introductory phrase) implies a different subject than the one in the sentence's subject slot. * subject-verb disagreement - A singular or plural subject does not agree with the verb form. * misused apostrophe - An apostrophe is used where it doesn't belong (usually confusing it's and its). * misused comma - A comma signals an unnecessary pause in a sentence. * pronoun-antecedent disagreement - A pronoun does not agree with a noun used earlier in the sentence. * faulty parallelism - A list of items in a sentence is not parallel in structure. * pronoun case error - The case of a pronoun is incorrect (usually due to confusion about when to use I or me). * shifted tense - Sentences inconsistently use past, present, and future tenses. * vague pronoun - It is unclear what the pronoun refers to.

Answer 102

Leininger n Yuan's guidelines for creating n editing global tech docs: Use short, direct sentences that follow subject, verb, object order—Second- language readers and translation software will be more successful if they can easily locate the subjects and verbs of sentences. Longer sentences should be cut into shorter sentences. Use positive sentences, and minimize negative sentences—Negative sentences sometimes translate more harshly than originally intended. A negative sentence that offers a simple caution to the reader can translate into one that makes dire predictions of harm or death. Use a limited set of words—Most international companies, such as Caterpillar and IBM, have developed standard language guides of English words to be used in international documents. Documents that use these words are easier for people and translation software to translate. Avoid humor or jokes—Jokes are highly culture-specific and situational, so they rarely translate well into other cultures and languages. Usually, they are just confusing, but sometimes they are insulting to the reader. Minimize jargon and slang—Jargon words and slang phrases are also culturally dependent and difficult to translate. These terms should be translated into their common meanings even though they might lose some of their original flair. Check any sayings, clichés, or idioms—These turns of phrase often do not translate well. For example, in North America, people “cross their fingers” for luck, but in Germany, people “hold their thumbs.” Avoid obvious metaphors—Metaphors cannot be completely avoided, but obvious ones should be removed. For example, sports metaphors like, “She hit a home run” or “He just punted” will be confusing to most transcultural readers. Metaphors that use body parts (e.g., “I’ll keep an eye on the project”) or animals (e.g., “He’s a workhorse”) can have very different and disturbing meanings when translated. Check slogans—Slogans usually rely on a cultural twist of words, so using them is particularly risky because of how they may be translated. In Taiwan, Pepsi’s slogan, “Come alive with the Pepsi Generation,” translated into, “Pepsi will bring your ancestors back from the dead” (Pendergrast, 1994). Check product names—Names of products can also translate in embarrassing ways. Products like the Pinto, Puffs, Waterpik, and latte, among others, have sexually suggestive meanings in other languages. The Chevy Nova didn’t sell well in Mexico and Latin America because “no va” means “It doesn’t go” in Spanish. To ensure that your documents will work across cultures, your best strategy is to user-test your documents with readers from likely target cultures. Translation software will rarely catch the subtleties of language. Also keep in mind that your translation software or online translator probably won’t identify unintended insults or sexually suggestive slang. A test reader from the target culture can help you identify those embarrassing places in your document.

Answer 103

Tuckman's Four Stages of Teaming, in order: 1. Forming 1. Storming 1. Norming 1. Performing "For Sally, No Problem!"

Answer 104

At a Glance: Six Steps for Strategic Planning: 1. Define the project mission and objectives. 1. Identify project outcomes. 1. Define team member responsibilities. 1. Create a project calendar. 1. Write out a work plan. 1. Agree on how conflicts will be resolved.

Answer 105

The basic features of a website are: * a home page, * node pages, * basic pages, and * navigational pages.

Answer 106

How many levels should a website have? * A maximum of three links for the most important information * A maximum of five links for 80 percent of all information * A maximum of seven links for all information

Answer 107

The different types of websites used in the workplace: * Social networks * Wikis * Blogs * Microblogs * Video and podcasts

Answer 108

Five techniques that are commonly used for generating new ideas: * Logical mapping / concept mapping / mind mapping * Brainstorming * Freewriting * Outlining/Boxing * Journalist's questions = The Five W and How Questions

Answer 109

Responsibilities of the four typical roles in a technical writing team: * Coordinator—The coordinator is responsible for maintaining the project schedule and running the meetings. The coordinator is not the “boss.” Rather, he or she is a facilitator who helps keep the project on track. * Researchers—One or two people in the group should be assigned to collect information. They are responsible for doing Internet searches, digging up materials in the library, and coordinating the team’s empirical research. * Editor—The editor is responsible for the organization and style of the document. He or she identifies places where content is missing or where information needs to be reorganized to achieve the project’s purpose. * Designer—The designer is responsible for laying out the document, collecting images, and making tables, graphs, and charts.

Answer 110

Strategies for working virtually with your team: * Stick to the work plan * Communicate regularly * Hold teleconferences and videoconferences * Build trust and respect * Keep regular hours

Answer 111

How to improve the quality on a collaborative writing team: * quality feedback loops * measuring outcomes against "metrics" * team performance reviews

Answer 112

Clearly define a few important points: * Subject—What exactly are we being asked to accomplish? What are the boundaries of our project? What are we not being asked to do? * Purpose (mission statement)—What is the mission of the project? Why are we being asked to do this? What are the end results (deliverables) that we are being asked to produce? * Readers—Who are our clients? What are their needs, values, and attitudes? Who will be evaluating our work? * Context—What are the physical, mobile, economic, and ethical factors that will influence this project? How should we adjust to them?

Answer 113

Your team’s work plan should: (1) define the mission, (2) state objectives and measurable outcomes, (3) spell out each stage and task in the project, (4) specify who is responsible for each task, and (5) lay out a project calendar.