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Lipids Flashcards

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1
Q

What bonds do lipids primarily contain ?

A

non-polar carbon-hydrogen (C-H) bonds

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2
Q

Most phospholipids contain a diglyceride, a phosphate group, and a simple organic molecule such as choline, what phospholipid is an exception to this rule ?

A

sphingomyelin, which is derived from sphingosine instead of glycerol

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3
Q

It is a steroid alcohol with 27 carbon atoms that are arranged in a tetracyclical sterane ring system, with a C-H sidechain

A

Cholesterol

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4
Q

What makes cholesterol amphipathic ?

A

contains a polar hydroxyl (OH) group on it’s a-ring

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5
Q

How much cholesterol is actually absorbed from what you gain in a day ?

A

30% - 60%

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6
Q

What is composed of the mixed micelles formed through emulsification ?

A 
monoglycerides
fatty acids
conjugated bile acids.
unesterified cholesterol
phospholipids
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7
Q

What is the role of bile acids in the formation of micelles ?

A

it acts as a detergent

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8
Q

Where does cholesterol absorption occur the most ?

A

middle jejunum and terminal ileum of the small intestine

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9
Q

What electrolyte protein mediates cholesterol absorption ?

A

NPC1L1 (Niemann-Pick C1-like 1)

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10
Q

What happens when the cholesterol enters the intestinal mucosal cell ?

A

it is packaged with triglycerides, phospholipids, and a large protein called apolipoprotein (apo) B-48 into large lipoprotein particles called chylomicrons

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11
Q

What is the purpose of cholesterol esterification ?

A

helps reduce the cytotoxicity of excess free cholesterol

once cholesterol is esterified, it loses its free hydroxyl group and becomes much more hydrophobic

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12
Q

What mediates intracellular cholesterol esterification ?

A

acylcholesterol acyltransferase (ACAT)

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13
Q

What mediates intravascular cholesterol esterification ?

A

lecithin acyltransferase (LCAT)

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14
Q

How much bile acids are reabsorbed in the lower third of ileum and are returned to the liver by the enterohepatic circulation ?

A

90%

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15
Q

What happens to bile acids that enter the large intestine ?

A

deconjugated by bacterial enzymes to secondary bile acids

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16
Q

What happens when the amount of cholesterol is bile exceeds the capacity of these solubilizing agents ?

A

it is possible for cholesterol to precipitate and form gallstones

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17
Q

What is the general chemical formula for fatty acids ?

A

RCOOH

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18
Q

How many carbons are in a short chain of fatty acid ?

A

2 - 4

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19
Q

How many carbons are in a medium chain of fatty acid ?

A

6 - 10

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20
Q

How many carbons are in a long chain of fatty acid ?

A

12 - 26

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21
Q

Which fatty acid chain length is of most importance to human nutrition and metabolism ?

A

long chain class

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22
Q

Compare the double bonds of saturated, monosaturated, and polyunsaturated fatty acids

A

Saturated: have no double bonds
Monounsaturated: one double bond
Polyunsaturated: multiple double bonds

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23
Q

Why are unsaturated fatty acids prone to oxidation ?

A

the nonenzymatic reaction of oxygen with their double bonds

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24
Q

Why do free fatty acids primarily exist in their ionized forms ?

A

free fatty acid carboxyl group has pKa of approximately 4.8

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25
Q

What is the normal concentration of free fatty acid in humans ?

A

0.3 to 1.1 mmol/L (8 to 31 mg/dL)

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26
Q

Where does stage three of cholesterol biosynthesis occur ?

A

endoplasmic reticulum

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27
Q

Where are fatty acids catabolized ?

A

mitochondria

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28
Q

What is a common pathway for the final oxidation of nearly all metabolic fuels ?

A

krebs cycle

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29
Q

Why is energy storage by triglyceride efficient in terms of space ?

A

it does not require any water for hydration, unlike carbohydrates

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30
Q

What does B-oxidation do in fatty acid catabolism ?

A

produce energy

this process is repeated to shorten the fatty acid chain by two carbon atoms at a time from the carboxy terminal end of the molecule

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31
Q

How do fatty acids exist in human plasma ?

A

majority of plasma fatty acids are found as a constituent of triglycerides or phospholipids

only a relatively small amounts of fatty acids exist in the free or unesterified form, most of which is bound to albumin

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32
Q

Differentiate cis and trans form of unsaturated fatty acids

A

CIS
• both hydrogen atoms on the same side of the C=C
double-bond
• bend in their structure
• bends increase the space that unsaturated fatty acids require when packed in a lipid layer and, as a result, these fatty acids are more fluid because they do not as readily self-associate

TRANS
• both hydrogen atoms on opposite side of the C=C double-bond
• no bend
• physical properties more similar to saturated fatty acids

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33
Q

If trans fatty acids are not commonly found in nature, why are they present in our diet ?

A

chemical hydrogenation treatment used in food processing for converting polyunsaturated plant oils into solid margarine introduces trans double bonds

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34
Q

This lipid is characterized by the presence of a glycerol moiety and fatty acid chains

A

acylglycerols

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35
Q

Differentiate monoacylglycerols, diacylglycerols, and triacylglycerols

A

monoacylglycerols
• one fatty acid molecule attached to a glycerol molecule by an ester bond
• present in trace levels in fresh animal and plant tissues

diacylglycerols
• two fatty acid chains attached to a glycerol molecule by an ester bond
• present in trace levels in fresh animal and
plant tissues

triacylglycerols
• three fatty acid molecules attached to one glycerol molecule by ester bonds
• structure has no charged groups or polar hydrophilic groups, making it hydrophobic and water-insoluble
• neutral lipid because it has no charge

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36
Q

Triglycerides containing saturated fatty acids are at what state of matter at room temperature ?

A

solid as they don’t have bends in their structure making them pack together more closely

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37
Q

Triglycerides containing cis unsaturated fatty acids are at what state of matter at room temperature ?

A

typically form oils

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38
Q

Triglycerides from plant sources are at what state of matter at room temperature ?

A

oils as they are rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids

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39
Q

Triglycerides from animal sources are at what state of matter at room temperature ?

A

contain mostly saturated fatty acids and are usually solid

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40
Q

How much tissue storage fat is constituted by triglycerides ?

A

95%

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41
Q

What form of glyceryl esters is predominantly found in plasma ?

A

Triglycerides

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42
Q

Where are dietary triglycerides digested and absorbed at ?

A

digested in the duodenum and are absorbed in the proximal ileum

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43
Q

Which lipid is similar to phospholipids in structure ?

A

triglycerides, except that they only have two esterified fatty acids, the third position on the glycerol backbone instead contains a phospholipids head group

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44
Q

Name a few phospholipid head groups

A

choline, inositol, serine, and ethanolamine

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45
Q

What phospholipid is most commonly found on lipoproteins and in cell membranes ?

A

Phosphatidylcholine

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46
Q

How many carbon atoms usually make up phospholipids ?

A

14 - 24

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47
Q

What makes phospholipids amphipathic ?

A

phospholipids contain both hydrophobic fatty acid C-H chains, and a hydrophilic head group

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48
Q

What common structure do all steroid molecules have ?

A

cyclopentanoperhydrophenantrene (steroid nucleus) characterized by four fused rings

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49
Q

Terpenes are polymers of the ___ and include vitamins ___, ___, and ___ and the ___, which play important roles in ___.

A

five-carbon isoprene
A, E, and K
dolichols
protein glycation.

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50
Q

What lipid controls the body’s internal climate with the goal of maintaining constant temperature ?

A

triglycerides

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51
Q

What does leptin do ?

A

a hormone that regulates appetite

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52
Q

What essential fatty acids help regulate cholesterol and blood clotting and control inflammation in the joints, tissues, and bloodstream ?

A

Omega-3 and omega-6

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53
Q

What lipids are required for proper reproductive health ?

A

fatty acids

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54
Q

How are lipids focal to brain activity in structure and in function ?

A

they help form nerve cell membranes, insulate neurons, and facilitate the signaling of electrical impulses throughout the brain

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55
Q

Differentiate visceral and subcutaneous fat

A

Visceral fat surrounds vital organs such as the heart, kidneys, and liver

Subcutaneous fat, or fat underneath the skin:
• insulates the body from extreme temperatures and helps keep the internal climate under control
• pads out hands and buttocks and prevents friction
•gives the body the extra padding required when engaging in physically demanding activities

56
Q

What are the fat soluble vitamins ?

A

A, D, E, and K

57
Q

Cholesterol is the precursor of ___

A

bile acids, vitamin D, and steroidal hormones

58
Q

Cholesterol also occurs in blood in free form as ___

A

plasma lipoproteins

59
Q

What essential fatty acids are precursors of many different types of eicosanoids ?

A

linoleic and linolenic acids

60
Q

What do eicosanoids play an important role in ?

A

pain, fever, inflammation and blood clotting

61
Q

These are diseases associated with abnormal lipid concentrations caused by genetic abnormalities or through environmental/lifestyle imbalances

A

Dyslipidemias

62
Q

This occurs when plaques develop in the arteries of the arms and legs

A

Peripheral Vascular Disease (PVD)

63
Q

The development of plaques in the coronary artery of the heart

A

Coronary Artery Disease (CAD)

64
Q

The development of plaques in the in the vessels of the brain

A

Cerebrovascular Disease (CVD)

65
Q

What are irritants of the vascular system in relation to the pathophysiology of atherosclerosis ?

A

(1) Chronic hypertension
(2) Toxins in blood circulation, such as those derived from cigarette smoking
(3) Elevated concentrations of LDL (Low Density Lipoprotein/LDL-C

66
Q

What causes the formation of a fatty streak ?

A

accumulation of LDL in the damaged endothelium of the artery

67
Q

What lymphocyte migrates to the area of the fatty streak ?

A

monocytes

68
Q

How are foam cells formed ?

A

Accumulated LDL will be phagocytized by macrophages -> eventually these macrophages
fill with cholesterol and die -> converted into foam cells

69
Q

What happens when there is a production and deposition of more foam cells to the damaged vessel wall ?

A

formation of a fatty plaque

70
Q

The formation of atherosclerotic plaque has several effects such as

A

(1) hardening of the damaged vessel wall from the deposition of calcium
(2) thickening of the damaged vessel wall leading to a smaller diameter of the blood vessel wall restricting blood flow in the affected area

71
Q

What are thrombogenic chemicals ?

A

chemicals that stimulate clot formation

72
Q

What happens if there is complete blockage of artery leading to the brain ?

A

cerebrovascular accident or stroke

73
Q

What is the range of borderline high triglyceride levels ?

A

150-200 mg/dL (1.7-2.3 mmol/L)

74
Q

What is the range of high triglyceride levels ?

A

200-500 mg/dL (2.3-5.6 mmol/L)

75
Q

What is the range of very high triglyceride levels ?

A

greater than 500 mg/dL (>5.6 mmol/L)

76
Q

What hormonal abnormalities associated with hypertriglyceridemia ?

A

pancreas, adrenal glands and pituitary, or of diabetes mellitus or nephrosis

77
Q

What is the cause of increased shunting of glucose into the pentose pathway, causing increased fatty acid synthesis ?

A

Diabetes mellitus

78
Q

What is the general cause of Hypertriglyceridemia ?

A

an imbalance between synthesis and clearance of VLDL in the circulation

deficiency in LPL or by a deficiency in apolipoprotein C-II, which is a necessary cofactor for LPL activity

79
Q

How do epinephrine and norepinephrine influence an increase in serum triglyceride levels ?

A

triggering production of hormone-sensitive lipase, which is located in adipose tissue

80
Q

What are other body processes that trigger hormone sensitive lipase activity ?

A 
cell growth (growth hormone)
adrenal stimulation (ACTH)
thyroid stimulation (thyrotropin)
fasting (glucagon)
81
Q

How is hypertriglyceridemia a potentially life threatening abnormality ?

A

it can cause acute and recurrent pancreatitis

82
Q

What is lipoprotein lipase role in relation to triglycerides ?

A

hydrolyzes triglycerides carried in chylomicrons and VLDL to provide cells with free fatty acids for energy from exogenous and endogenous triglyceride sources

83
Q

What is the treatment for hypertriglyceridemia ?

A

dietary modifications, fish oil, and or triglyceride- lowering drugs (primarily, fibric acid derivatives)

84
Q

What is the range of desirable total cholesterol levels ?

A

<200 mg/dL

85
Q

What is the range of borderline high total cholesterol levels ?

A

200-239 mg/dL

86
Q

What is the range of high total cholesterol levels ?

A

≥ 240 mg/dL

87
Q

What is the enzyme deficient of Fabry’s disease ?

A

Alpha galactosidase

88
Q

What is the enzyme deficient of GM-1 gangliosidosis ?

A

Beta galactosidase

89
Q

What is the enzyme deficient of Gaucher ?

A

Beta galactosidase

90
Q

What is the enzyme deficient of Krabbe ?

A

Cerebroside beta galactosidase

91
Q

What is the enzyme deficient of Niemann Pick ?

A

Sphingomyelinase

92
Q

What is the enzyme deficient of Metachromatic leukodystrophy ?

A

Arylsulfatase A

93
Q

What is the enzyme deficient of Sandhoff ?

A

Total hexosaminidase (hexosaminidase A and B)

94
Q

What is the enzyme deficient of Tay Sach ?

A

Hexosaminidase A

95
Q

What are the Clinical (Non-Laboratory) Risk Factors for CHD ?

A
  • Cigarette smoking (any smoking in the past month)
  • Hypertension (blood pressure >140/90 mmHg or on antihypertensive medication
  • Family history of premature CHD (CHD in male first degree relative <55 years, or in female first-degree relative <65 years)
  • Age (Men: >45 years; Women: >55 years)
  • Obesity
  • Diabetes mellitus
  • Sedentary lifestyle
96
Q

How are triglycerides made soluble ?

A

attaching to circulating lipoproteins that transport lipids to various tissues

97
Q

What is the purpose and reagent for extraction in triglyceride analysis ?

A

PURPOSE: pre-treatment of sample to remove the lipids from proteins

REAGENT: organic solvent (e.g. choloroform, isopropanol, diethyl ether)

98
Q

What is the purpose and reagent for adsorption in triglyceride analysis ?

A

PURPORSE: to remove non-triglyceride glycerols such as phospholipids, monoglycerides, and diglycerides as well as interfering substances such as glucose (carbohydrates) and bilirubin

REAGENT: alumina adsorbent mixture, zeolite, florisil or salisilic acid

99
Q

What is the purpose and reagent for hydrolysis or saponification in triglyceride analysis ?

A

PURPOSE: to cleave triglyceride molecules into fatty acids and glycerol

REAGENT: potassium hydroxide in ethanol (alcoholic potassium hydroxide) or sodium methoxide

100
Q

Chemical equation of hydrolysis in triglyceride analysis

A

Triglycerides + 3H2O à Glycerol + Fatty acids

101
Q

What is the purpose and reagent for oxidation or saponification in triglyceride analysis ?

A

PURPOSE: to convert glycerol to a measurable compound

REAGENT: oxidizing agent such as sodium periodate

102
Q

Chemical equation of oxidation in triglyceride analysis

A

Glycerol + Sodium periodate (NaIO4) à Formaldehyde + Formic acid

103
Q

What is the purpose for colorimetry or saponification in triglyceride analysis ?

A

aids in the measurement of the compound that forms after oxidation; measured by its absorbance after addition of color reagent

104
Q

In colorimetry for triglyceride analysis what conditions would be observed for chromotopic acid and H2SO4 ?

A

pink chromophore measured at 500-600 nm

105
Q

In colorimetry for triglyceride analysis what conditions would be observed for diphenylhydrazone ?

A

product measured at 500-600 nm

106
Q

In colorimetry for triglyceride analysis what conditions would be observed for acetylacetone and ammonia

A

formation of diacetyldihydrolutidine, a yellow product that can be measured either:
SPECTROPHOTOMETRICALLY at 412nm or FLUOROMETRICALLY (Excitaton light: 400 nm; Emitted light: 485 nm)

107
Q

What is the CDC recommended method for triglycerides ?

A

Gas Chromatography Isotope Dilution Mass Spectrometry

108
Q

What is the original reference method for triglyceride analysis ?

A
  1. Extraction with chloroform
  2. Adsorption with salicylic acid
  3. Hydrolysis with KOH
  4. Oxidation with periodate
  5. Color development using chromotropic acid
  6. Absorbance is measured at 570 nm
109
Q

What enzymes are included in the initial enzymatic reaction for the enzymatic method of the analysis of triglycerides ?

A

Lipase and Glycerokinase

110
Q

What coupled enzymatic reactions can follow the initial enzymatic reaction for analysis of triglycerides ?

A

glycerophosphate dehydrogenase and diaphorase

or

glycerophosphate-oxidase and peroxidase

or

pyruvate kinase and lactate dehydrogenase

111
Q

What are the measurements of absorbance in the glycerophosphate dehydrogenase and diaphorase coupled reaction ?

A

NADH can be measured at 340 nm, after the glycerophosphate dehydrogenase reaction

Formazan dye can be measured between 500-600 nm

112
Q

What are the measurements of absorbance in the glycerophosphate-oxidase and peroxidase coupled reaction ?

A

Red quinoneimine dye can be measured at 500-505 nm

113
Q

How can bilirubin interference be minimized in the glycerophosphate-oxidase and peroxidase coupled reaction ?

A

Adding potassium ferrocyanide to the reaction mixture with peroxidase -> Potassium ferrocyanide reduces bilirubin into an inactive compound

114
Q

What can interfere the peroxidase step in the glycerophosphate-oxidase and peroxidase coupled reaction ?

A

Hemoglobin and ascorbic acid

115
Q

What are the measurements of absorbance in the pyruvate kinase and lactate dehydrogenase coupled reaction ?

A

NAD+ can be measured at 340 nm spectrophotometrically or flouometrically (Excitation light at 355nm, Emitted light at 460 nm)

116
Q

The enzymatic method is linear in the concentration and can range up to

A

700 mg/dL

117
Q

What can cause overestimation of triglyceride concentration ?

A

Endogenous glycerol

118
Q

What is the expected result in the Zilversmit-Davis chemical method for assays of phospholipids ?

A

phosphorous reacts with ammonium molybdate to form a blue colored compound measured at 700 nm

119
Q

Zilversmit-Davis flow of reactions

A

Lipid -> oxidized -> phospholipid phosphorous -> inorganic phosphate -> oxidized with perchlorate and nitric acid -> releasing phosphorous -> reacted with ammonium molybdate -> blue colour compound

120
Q

What is the expected result of Baginski et al method ?

A

Phosphorous reacts with ascorbic acid to form a colored substance

121
Q

What enzymes are used in the enzymatic method of assays of phospholipids ?

A

Phospholipase D
Choline oxidase
Peroxidase

122
Q

What is the purpose and reagent for extraction in total cholesterol analysis ?

A

PURPOSE: cholesterol is separated from protein

REAGENT: Bloor’s reagent (composed of ethanol-ether at a 3:1 ratio)/ Chloroform/ Hexane

123
Q

What is the purpose and reagent for extraction in total cholesterol analysis ?

A

PURPOSE: extracts all forms of cholesterol, leaving behind most of the sterols

REAGENT: zeolite

124
Q

What is the purpose and reagent for adsorption in total cholesterol analysis ?

A

PURPOSE: cholesteryl esters after extraction are hydrolyzed into free cholesterol and fatty acid

REAGENT: alcoholic potassium hydroxide (KOH)

125
Q

What is the purpose and reagent for saponification/hydrolysis in total cholesterol analysis ?

A

PURPOSE: to precipitate free cholesterol; removes error of non-specific chromogen interference

REAGENT: digitonin (measure cholesterol before and after digitonin treatment to determine cholesterol fraction)

126
Q

What is the purpose and reagent for colorimetry in total cholesterol analysis ?

A

PURPOSE: color development, measured spectrophotometrically

REAGENT: color reagent

127
Q

What is the reagent, end product, and end colour in the Liebermann-Burchard Reaction for total cholesterol analysis ?

A

Reagent: Acetic anhydride + Sulfuric acid

End product: Cholestedienyl monosulfonic acid

End colour: Green

128
Q

What is the reagent, end product, and end colour in the Salkowski Reaction for total cholesterol analysis ?

A

Reagent: Sulfurin acid + Ferric iron

End product: Cholestedienyl disulfonic acid

End colour: Red

129
Q

How is the end colour stabilized in the Liebermann-Burchard Reaction ?

A

adding sodium sulfate

130
Q

What is the CDC Reference Method for Cholesterol (Abell, et. al.) ?

A 
Hydrolysis with alcoholic KOH
Extraction with hexane
Extract is dried in vacuo
Dried extract is then treated with Liebermann-Burchard reagent
Read at 620 nm after 30 minutes
131
Q

What is one drawback of using oxygen consumption as an enzymatic method for the analysis of total cholesterol ?

A

Not easily automated and generally require a lot of cholesterol oxidase

132
Q

What is the procedure for standing plasma test ?

A

2mL of plasma is placed in 10 X 75 mm test tube and allowed to stand in the refrigerator at 4 degrees Celsius undisturbed overnight

133
Q

How do chylomicrons appear in the standing plasma test ?

A

floating cream layer

134
Q

What does it mean for chylomicrons to appear in fasting plasma ?

A

abnormal

135
Q

What does it mean for plasma sample that remains turbid after standing overnight ?

A

excessive amounts of VLDL

136
Q

How can the patient be prepared for lipid related tests

A

Fasting requirement of at least 12 hours

Ethanol consumption must be restricted at least 48 hours prior to the test

137
Q

When are samples rejected for lipid tests ?

A

hemolyzed and icteric

Clinical Chemistry (1 decks)

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