Linguistics Flashcards

Question

What is flapping?

Answer 1

Where the voiceless /t/ becomes a voiced stop /d/ in rapid speech. Rapid speech flapping butter- /buder/ Slow speech no flapping- butter /buter/

Answer 2

Stops in the initial position of words and syllables. Aspirated- pit Unaspirated- spit When u say pit, makes an explosive sound when the voiceless stop /p/ heads the word. But when the phoneme /p/ follows a voiceless phonome like /s/, then it is not aspirated.

Answer 3

Words sound different in fast or slow speech. Flapping (butter ex) is an example of assimilation. /t/ into /d/

Answer 4

In rapid speech, we sometimes delete entire phonemes or syllables. This explains contractions. It also explains the mismatch of what we write and what we say.

Answer 5

Phonomes can be either voiced or unvoiced depending on whether the consonants that it follows are voiced or unvoiced. The d can sound like t because n is a voiced consonant (runned)

Answer 6

Inserting sounds that are not normally there. Warmth /warmpth/

Answer 7

The final phonemes are swapped Metathesis is the re-arranging of sounds or syllables in a word, or of words in a sentence. Most commonly it refers to the switching of two or more contiguous sounds, known as adjacent metathesis[1] or local metathesis:[2] foliage → **foilage cavalry → **calvary

Answer 8

Spoken words shift sounds in regional speech. Williams can be heard as /weyams/, where the liquid /l/ becomes a palatal /y/ sound.

Answer 9

The study of the smallest units of meaning in a word. (individual units of meaning) /s/can be a morpheme because it can make a word plural ex two morophemes- (elephant +s, elephants)

Answer 10

Free morphemes- stand alone words, such as cat, Chris, runs Bound morphemes- attached to stand-alone words, inflectional suffixes like -s, -'s, and -ed. Derivations like -tion

Answer 11

Duck -represents one morpheme. When spoken has three phonemes. /d/, /u/, /k/. Sounds and letters combined into one morpheme, even though it has four letters (graphemes) and three phonemes. Ducks - has two (duck) & (s) free and bound Gibberish or sound do not count as morphemes.

Answer 12

An affix is a morpheme that is attached to a word stem to form a new word. Affixes may be derivational, like English -ness and pre-, or inflectional, like English plural -s and past tense -ed. They are bound morphemes by definition; prefixes and suffixes may be separable affixes. Affixation is, thus, the linguistic process speakers use to form different words by adding morphemes (affixes) at the beginning (prefixation), the middle (infixation) or the end (suffixation) of words. Either prefixes or suffixes and can be counted as morphemes. Inflectional and Derivational are the two important groups.

Answer 13

Plurals, possessives (mike's) comparatives (bigger), superlative (biggest), verb tense (walks, walked, walking, chosen), and third singular (he runs, walks, stops)

Answer 14

Prefixes- un-, re-, inter-, de- | Suffixes- -able, -tion, -al, -ize, -ment

Answer 15

- they make nouns plural or possessive - they make adjectives comparative or superlative - they make different tenses and mark subject/verb agreement. - they DO NOT radically change the meaning of a word or its grammatical category, because that is the job of the derivational prefix or suffix.

Answer 16

Inter- (Prefix, meaning between) nation (base word), -al (suffix) -ize (suffix), -ation (suffix).

Answer 17

the process of counting derivational morphemes and analyzing their meaning in words.

Answer 18

- nation to national (noun to verb) - national to nationalize (adjective to verb) - nationalize to nationalization (verb back to noun) - nationalization to internationalization (national unity to international unity)

Answer 19

Derivational affixes are far more powerful than simple inflectional affixes. Derivations can change a words meaning or its grammatical category, whereas inflections can only make nouns plural or possessive or verbs past or present.

Answer 20

- they are bound morphemes. - they cannot stand alone and mean anything - they carry the meaning of a word by themselves and other letters attach to them to convey meaning. - when you are looking for root words within words, you are actually studying a word's etymology- it's history, meaning and origin.

Answer 21

It describes a language the way people use it without judging whether the utterance is correct or incorrect. ex: How you change the form of a question rather than correct usage. "Whom versus Who"- doesn't matter.

Answer 22

focuses on importance of correct usage of grammar.

Answer 23

deep structure and surface structure. Surface structures- sentences we produce. Deep structures- underlying sentences that we use to make our own utterances. *think -image/object/action or subject/verb/object The words we used to describe that are the "surface" structure but they all convey the deep structure. ex: You (subject) are addressing (verb) whom (object) versus -deep structure surface structure- whom are you addressing?

Answer 24

who, what, where, why, and when.

Answer 25

-deep structures appear to be part of a "universal grammar" because they are found cross-linguistically. The subject/object/verb pattern is one that is found in many languages.

Answer 26

Nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections.

Answer 27

Nouns name people, places, things, ideas, animals, qualities, and sometimes actions we perform (ex: "swimming" is fun). Different types of nouns: Common nouns, proper nouns, concrete nouns, abstract nouns, collective nouns, compound nouns, singular nouns.

Answer 28

they name unspecific persons, places, things, ideas, etc. Ex: men, cars, and policies are all unspecific, common nouns.

Answer 29

They name specific persons, places, things, etc. mostly capitalizes. Proper names, ethnicities, titles.

Answer 30

Names things that we can see feel taste, touch, and/or smell but can be either common or proper. Ex: cars is a concrete, common noun, but Colgate (toothpaste) is a proper concrete noun.

Answer 31

things that we cannot experience through our five senses. They can be common or proper. Ex: Einstein's theory.

Answer 32

groups of people or collections of things. Ex: team, herd.

Answer 33

nouns made up of two words, like heating duct, or air horn, or Batman

Answer 34

they name individual people, places, or things, and plural nouns name more than one noun.

Answer 35

1. ) some nouns become -es instead of -s if they end in s, x, z, ch, or sh like buzzes, axes, lunches. 2. ) drop the y and and -ies (unless its a vowel before the y monkeys) 3. ) some nouns take the "ablaut" forms in the plural, mouse- mice, foot - feet, goose- geese. 4. ) possessive = 's unless it's group ownership then it's s' 5. ) "gerunds" are verbs with the inflectional affix -ing attahed to them. Thinking, running, as nouns.

Answer 36

pronouns, like regular nouns, name people, places, things, both concrete and abstract, but they are used to replace nouns to help eliminate redundancy. Pronouns replace nouns and require an antecedent. Subjective Pronouns: I, you, we, they, he, she, it Objective Pronouns: me, you, us, them, him, her, it Possessive Subjective: my, your, our, their, his, her, its Possessive Objective: mine, yours, ours, theirs, his, hers, its, Possessive Reflexive, myself, yourself, ourselves, themselves, himself, herself, itself

Answer 37

they direct actions or descriptions back to the subject of the sentence. ex: I tend to keep things to myself The dishwasher works by itself.

Answer 38

Who/Whose/Whom What Which -Interrogative pronouns usually head sentences that ask questions.

Answer 39

``` they indicate which person or object is being described and its distance from the speaker. That is a nice suit. This is a nice suit. These are fine shoes. Those are fine shoes. ```

Answer 40

They refer to things and people in a general and collective sense. Everyone is here. Everybody is here. No one is here. Nobody is here. There is virtually no difference between everyone/everybody and no one/nobody.

Answer 41

Verbs make statements, ask questions, or give commands or directions. "being" verbs- is, am, seems, feel "action" verbs- run, walk, stand, feel "auxiliary" verbs- has, have, had, be, am, is, are, will "transitive" verb- take, make, bring "intransitive" verb- run, walk, sleep "infinitive" verb- to be, to run, to walk, to stand

Answer 42

"Being" verbs describe or qualify the subject of a sentence. Chris "is" a 35 year old male teacher. "Action" verbs are concrete action.. there can be abstract actions as well (walks, swears) there can be both "being" and "action" verbs. Ex: Chris feels sick. Chris feels his dog for ticks. Both a state of being and an action.

Answer 43

They clarify when an action takes place, took place, or will take place. They tell us the present, past, and future. Ex: Suzy "will" walk her dog in the morning, and "will" be happy.

Answer 44

Transitive verbs require an object in order to make sense. Ex: Chris "writes books" in the morning. The act of writing produces something, in this case a book. Transitive verbs may also take things called "indirect objects", something that benefits from the action being performed. Ex: Chris writes a letter "to Beatriz".

Answer 45

intransitive verbs do not need objects in order to make sense. I run. I walk. I sleep.

Answer 46

Infinitive form: To Be, To Walk, To See Bare Infinitive: Be, Walk, See Infinitives appear after many verbs, like "need" and "like" I need "to work" today. I like "to work" on writing. Bare infinitives appear after other verbs, like "must" and "shall" I must "work" today. I shall "work" today.

Answer 47

past- I walked present- I walk future- i will walk.

Answer 48

regular - I walk. I walked. I will walk. irregular- I was here. I am here. I will be here. *Irregular verbs go by there own set of rules. They do not follow normal conjugation.

Answer 49

A participle is a word formed from a verb that can function as part of a verb phrase. For example:- 'has been" Or independently as an adjective. For example:- working woman hot water bottle There are three forms of participle: The present participle, the past participle and the perfect participle. Participles, Participle constructions Uses for Participles 1 to shorten relative clauses 2 to make one sentence out of two 3 after verbs of "perception" (e.g. see, watch, hear, listen to, smell, feel) 4 after verbs of "rest" and "movement" (e.g. run, go, come, stay, stand, lie, sit) 5 after the verb have 6 instead of a subordinate clause Form present participle an exciting race past participle excited people Examples 1 The cars which are produced in Japan are nice. The cars produced in Japan are nice. 2 I saw the man. He came to the shop. I saw the man coming to the shop. 3 I saw the car coming round the corner. 4 The girl sat sleeping on the sofa. 5 I have my clothes washed. 6 When they went to Texas they expected a better job. Going to Texas they expected a better job.

Answer 50

it is the highest degree of the adjective being described. -formed by adding -est. (ex: greatest) or using "most" "That was the most terrific play I've ever seen."

Answer 51

When adjectives follow "being" verbs. | examples: He looks tired. She seems sick. She is joyful. He is nice.

Answer 52

they describe ACTIONS that BEGAN in the past and are either (a) happening now (b) finishing completely or (c) starting at some point in the future. (a) I am walking. (b) I was walking. (c) I will be walking. *think about it this way. the difference between simple and progressive tenses are big. I walk means that you are capable of walking but "I am walking" means that you are now, at this moment, walking.

Answer 53

They describe actions that were completed in the past and may or may not happen again. ex: I have walked here before (and I'm doing it now). I had walked there before (but not now/any more).

Answer 54

the most complicated of all tenses and describe the past, present, and future. I have been walking now for four hours. I had been walking there before (but not now/anymore). I will have been walking for four hours when I get there.

Answer 55

They modify or qualify both nouns and pronouns. ex: changes the color, condition, number, or can be comparative/superlative ex: the "blue" car is here. the "dirty" blue car is here. "Three" "dirty" "blue" cars are here. That is a dirtier car then that one. That is the dirtiest car I've ever seen! (Suzy's car)

Answer 56

-use "a" when the next word begins with a consonant. a rabbit. -use "an" when it begins with a vowel. an orange. an apple. an almond. an orchid. an octopus. an indiscretion.

Answer 57

They define, qualify or limit a verb, adjectives, other adverbs, phrases, clauses, or whole sentences. Adverbs do alot of modifying. Examples: changing a verb- I wrote "quickly". changing an adjective- I have a "very" small dog. changing an adverb- I see you "very" well. making a phrase- The book is "right by the door." clauses- "Since you didn't complete the work", I cannot pay you. sentences- I like pizza; "however", the doctor said I can't have it. Functions they perform in various sentences: Location (here, there): My cat runs "here" and "there". Manner (sloppily, neatly): I painted the picture neatly. Degree (very, hardly): I am very happy. Time (now, later): let's do the dishes later. Negation (not): I am not going there.

Answer 58

phrase- has nouns and verbs, but there is no subject doing the verb. ex: smashing through the fence. before the first test. clause- the subject is actively doing the verb. ex: because he smashed through the fence. when the saints go marching in.

Answer 59

they show relationship between a noun and its object to other words in a sentence. They tell us where things are (at, above, near, far). Prepositional phrases tell us when things will happen (in the morning, at noon) and describe nouns in greater detail (in the red car, in the green shirt). 10 common prepositions: in, on, near, far, before, after, to, with, without. Prepositions require a noun to have meaning. The noun is called the "object of the preposition", as in - in the car - on the floor - near my house - together the preposition and its noun are called a prepositional phrase. - Prepositional phrases can perform the functions of adverbs and adjecties depending on what they are describing or qualifying.

Answer 60

Adverbial and Adjectival. The easiest way to distinguish between the two types is to know if the phrase is modifying a noun or verb. if it modifies a noun, then it is adjectival, if it modified a verb, than its adverbial. Turn "to the left" - adverbal- modifies a verb (turning) the man "in the blue shirt" is holding a gun -adjectival- modifies a noun (shirt)

Answer 61

Conjunctions link words, phrases, or clauses together. They connect small things like words together and may also join large pieces of sentences together, including phrases or clauses. There are three types of conjunctions to know for the test. Coordinating, Correlating, and Subordinating.

Answer 62

1.) Coordinating (and, but, nor, for, or). Coordinating conjunctions balance words, phrases, or clauses together. "Cabs (and) douchebags are here!" "Ronny and Mike ran into the street (and) they got hit by a taxi." 2.) Correlating conjunctions show positive or negative relationships between words, phrases, or clauses. They show parallelism. "Either" Ronney "or" Mike will get someone pregnant. "Neither" Ronney "nor" Mike will stop being douchebags. 3.) Subordinate conjunctions show orders and contingencies when one thing or idea depends on some other, superior idea. (ex: like when, since, and because.) Ex: "When Ronny gets a girl pregnant", he will cry. Ex: "Since Mike hasn't worked a day in his life", he has no concept of reality. in sum, conjections link words, phrases, and clauses together coherently.

Answer 63

they show emotion (suprise, awe, disappointment, excitement, etc.) They capture emotion- any emotion. They are short and use a common if the expression is matter-of-fact or an exclamation point. Ouch! Yea! Oh, pardon me.

Answer 64

Groups of words that do not stand as sentences by themselves. Simple phrases are called noun phrases, verb phrases, and prepositional phrases. In brief, noun phrases contain the central noun and all of the articles. Verb phrases, like noun phrases, contain the verb and all of the adverbs and prepositional phrases used to describe it. Adjectival describes the noun (in, to)

Answer 65

they are marked with "to + verb", as in "To run in the morning" is fun. There are present or perfect. Perfect infinitives describe things that took place before the action in the sentence. Present infinitives "To run in the morning is fun." (Subject) I like "to run in the morning." (direct object) Perfect infinitives: I appear "to need a different brain for this task." I am sorry "to have forgotten my pants."

Answer 66

They are easy to identify because they are offset with commas and function as adjectives to further describe nouns ex: The teacher, Mr. Dobbs, is here. (, Mr. Dobbs,) The car, a brand new Toyota Solara, is what I want for my birthday. (, a brand new Toyota Solara,)

Answer 67

They are much larger than phrases. They have a subject and verb and because of these features they can be mistaken for sentences. There are Independent Clauses, Dependent Clauses and Relative Clauses.

Answer 68

clauses/parts of sentence that can stand all by itself and has a subject, verb, and maybe an object. You are able identify as it being able to make sense all by itself. The only differences are punctuation and capitalization. If you put a capital letter at the beginning of an independent clause and a period after it, you will have a complete sentence. "Clause" means it has a subject and a predicate. "Independent" means it can stand on its own as a complete sentence. Usually, when we talk about independent clauses, we are discussing compound sentences. For example, consider these two complete sentences. "He saw his brother drive away." "He waved at him." Each of these has a subject and a predicate, and they are complete sentences. They start with a capital letter and end with a period. We can join these two complete sentences into one compound sentence, as follows: "He saw his brother drive away, and he waved at him." Now, instead of calling those two parts complete sentences, we call them independent clauses. The only differences are punctuation and capitalization. We can see that the two independent clauses are the same as the two complete sentences. In brief, if we have separate complete sentences, we call them "complete sentences." If we join them together, we call them "independent clauses."

Answer 69

It is part of a sentence that cannot stand all by itself, even though it has a subject, verb, and maybe an object. ex: "because I was sick."

Answer 70

These clauses provide more information about nouns and use that, which, who, and whom. Like dependent clauses, relative clauses cannot stand alone. Ex: The man "that I know from school" is here. Ex: The man "whom I know from school" is here.

Answer 71

Restricted simply means that the information is essential to one's understanding of the sentence. Restricted Clause: The girl who came in first won the race. Nonrestricted Clause: The boy, who is next to Bob, won the race.

Answer 72

Simple sentences, compound sentences, complex sentences, and compound-complex sentences. Chris and Mike are here. (not a compound sentence, but a compound subject.) Chris and Mike ran and jumped (not a compound sentence, but a compound predicate.) EXAMPLES: Simple sentence: One subject + One predicate "Simple sentences are straightforward." Compound sentence: Two main clauses: "One sentence contains a subject and verb, and the second sentence contains another subject and verb." Complex sentences: Subordinate Clause + Main clause "If the subject has a main clause and a subordinate class, it is complex." Compound-complex sentences: Two or More main Clauses and a subordinate clause: If the sentence has two main clauses and a subordinate clause, it is compound and it is complex.

Answer 73

Declarative, interrogatives, exclamatory, conditionals, and imperatives. Declarative: Today is a very nice day today. Interrogative: Where are you going? Do you need a ride? Exclamatory: You're late again! Conditional: If you don't work hard, you won't finish. Imperative: (You) Shut up. (Imperatives make commands and use the understood you for the subject).

Answer 74

The study of assigned labels we attach to everything in the English language and how we assign meaning to things. Why do we call a frog a frog and a rose a rose? There is no reason beyond our mutual agreement that that is what we are going to call those things.

Answer 75

Denotation, connotation, structural meanings, etymology, and the effect of context Denotation meanings of words are their dictionary definitions. Connotative meanings are all of the assigned meanings of the words that move beyond the literal definition of the word. Structural meanings/analysis is used to teach children vocabulary using prefixes, suffixes, roots, and base words.

Answer 76

Homophones: words that sound the same but their spellings indicate the differences in their meaning and how they are used in sentences. Homographs: written the same but pronounced differently. Subject and subject.

Answer 77

The study of language used in social situations. Can be studied on a micro or marco level. On the micro level, one looks at speech acts, styles, and registers. At the macro level, linguists analyze discourse(conversation) with social contexts(language used in the classroom, at the bank, etc.) Speech acts include requests, commands, statements, and any other functional kind of utterance you can think of.

Answer 78

Illocution, locution, and percolation. Illocution- the kind of speech the utterance is. locution- surface meaning of the utterance. Percolation- underlying effect of the utterance. Example: If you don't stop following me, I'll call the police. Illocation- Warning Locution- Leave me alone. Percolation- There will be trouble if my condition isn't met Speech acts get much of their illocutionary, locutionary, and percolationary effect from the phonology, morphology, and semantics we select when speaking.

Answer 79

Registers are appropriate SPEECH STYLES that we use in different social situations and vary depending on formality. 1. ) Intimate- Couple's speech (booface, sweetie, daddy) 2. ) Causal- Speaking among friends and family (Gimme the pencil) 3. ) Formal= Speaking among coworkers, employers (Would you please?) 4. ) Frozen: Languages used on signs and in ceremonies. (Dearly beloved...)

Answer 80

is the study of register (speech styles) and genre variation within a culture and between cultures. -study in an intercultural sense- Japan speech versus American speech while doing business. Other aspects of sociolinguistics- linguistic relativity (does the language limit or broaden one's experience?) idiolects (characterized individual speakers' language (ex: someone's own filler speech umm..)) sociolects (social groups, subcultures ex: teens, children) issoglosses and dialects (regional varieties of English) An issogloss is a variation of English that differs between cities or close connect areas (state borders) whereas dialects are regional variations, like the difference between Northern and Southern English.

Answer 81

``` Can be created from generational changes. Studies in sociolinguistics and applied linguistics have noted the over-application of rules of phonology, syntax, or morphology, resulting either from different rules in varieties of the same language or second language learning. Sociolinguists often note hypercorrection in terms of pronunciation (phonology). For example, William Labov noted that all of the English speakers he studied in New York city in the 1960s tended to pronounce words such as hard as rhotic (that is, /hɑrd/ rather than */hɑːd/) more often when speaking carefully. Furthermore, middle class speakers had more rhotic pronunciation than working class speakers did. However, lower-middle class speakers had more rhotic pronunciation than upper-middle class speakers. Labov suggested that these lower-middle class speakers were attempting to emulate the pronunciation of upper-middle class speakers, but were actually over-producing the very noticeable R-sound.[4] A common source of hypercorrection in the morphology and syntax of English is the use of pronouns; see the section Personal pronouns, below. **Hypercorrection can also occur when learners of a second or foreign language try to avoid applying grammatical rules from their native language to the new language (a situation known as language transfer). The effect can occur, for example, when a student of a new language has learned that certain sounds of his or her original language must usually be replaced by another in the studied language, but has not learned when not to replace them. ```

Answer 82

``` Old, middle, and modern english- three periods. The transition from old English to middle English is marked by the Norman Conquest of 1066. During this period, the great vowel shift occurred, long vowel sounds become short, short become long. Name Old English /nama/ Middle English- /name/ Modern English- /nAm/ ```