Linguistic Variables Flashcards
What is language variation?
patterned alternation in language
What is a linguistic variable?
set of alternating forms of the same meaning (identical distribution
runnin’ or running
What do you call a feature that is always or never used?
categorical
Give 4 examples of variables
word initial (th) - θ, tθ, t
word final (th) - θ, ð, t, f, nothing
(ing) - n, ŋ
(dh) - ð, ðd, d
Are linguistic variables dependent or independent?
Dependent
What are independent variables influencing the speaker’s choice between linguistic variables?
social status
occupation
occasion
formality
What are the 2 types of variants?
discrete - clearly different
continuous - differ on a continuous scale (vowels, height and backing)
How do you calculate the linguistic index?
all standard/non variant tokens
divided by all possible variants
Give some features of variation
exists within a community or individual
can be distributed across communities
can remain stable for long periods of time
inherent to language systems
necessary for language change
has regional/social distribution in speech communities
What kind of variable is (ing)?
morphological
stable today
What are the origins of the (ing) variable?
Old English present participle - ende/inde
-phonetically [Iŋ] -> [in]
Old English Verbal nouns ending in -inge/-ynge/-ung
-became more like verbs until Modern English gerund
-phonetically [Iŋgə] -> [Iŋ
How is the variable (ing) distributed in modern english?
original functions still seen today
alveolar [in] is more used in verb like forms
velar [Iŋ] occurs more in nouns
How did the Old English (ing) come to be the Modern version?
in 1400s, participle -ende became [and] in the North and [ind] in the South
This led to [Iŋ] in the South first
When London’s speech was standardised, [Iŋ] became ‘correct’
Explain regional variation of (ing)
The regional variation emerged when the N/S rivalry eventually turned regional differences into social ones
What kind of variable are (th), (dh) and (r)?
phonological
How can you differentiate between morphological and phonological variables?
Morphological indicate meaning
What kind of variable is more stigmatised?
Morphological, means bad grammar
-larger, easier to spot and attach spellings to
Phonological is more accent related
What are the 3 roles of the suffix -s?
verbal, marking agreement for 3rd person sing
possessive
plural
What are the properties of the suffix -s?
- s after a voiceless stop
- əz after sibilant
- z everywhere else
What is a group exclusive pattern?
If only members of a certain group ever say a certain form
What is a group preferential pattern?
If a group uses a feature more often than another group
Is -s variable group preferential or exclusive?
Both
preferential - zero plurals in measure words
exclusive - east anglian 3SG present tense zero
What are the 2 other kinds of variation seen with the -s variable?
expected/not used
not expected/used
Where did verbal -s originate from?
Middle English 1SG- N/S/M zero marked 2/3SG - M has both N/S forms Plural: M has -n form which disappears N had -s, S had -eth, N won
How did verbal -s vary in SW England?
generalized it so it could be used in all persons and numbers
How did verbal -s vary in East Anglia?
no -s anywhere, including 3SG present
Why did East Anglia’s -s difference happen there?
Used to be 2nd largest city
- attracted many french migrants = language contact
- -English=L2 (lingua franca) - simplified patterns
- s/-eth victory happened later than migrants arrival so they never learnt it
How does -s vary in African American English?
absence of expected -s and presence of unexpected -s
usually appears in plural, past narrations and habituality
absent in possessives,
