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Lifestyle and Risk Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

Water as a solvent process

A

As water is a polar molecule sodium and chloride ions and glucose will dissolve

Water molecules surround charged particles ;the positive parts of water are attracted to negatively charged particles and the negative parts of water are attracted to positively charged particles

The surrounded molecules break apart e.g. sodium chloride molecules break into sodium ions and chloride ions The ions surrounded by water molecules have dissolved

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2
Q

The whole process of if damage happens to the endothelium

A

If damage occurs to the endothelium (e.g. by high
blood pressure) there will be an inflammatory response — this is where white blood cells (mostly
macrophages) move into the area.
These white blood cells and lipids (fats) from the blood, clump together under the endothelium to form fatty streaks.

Over time, more white blood cells, lipids and connective tissue
build up and harden to form a fibrous plaque called an atheroma.
This plaque partially blocks the lumen of the artery and restricts
blood flow, which causes blood pressure to increase.

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3
Q

What are the two polysaccharides that make up starch?

A

Amylose and amylopectin

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4
Q

Saturated lipids everything

A

Saturated lipids are mainly found in animal fats

they have higher melting temperatures

Saturated lipids don’t have any double bonds between the carbon atoms in their hydrocarbon tails every carbon is attached to at least two hydrogen atoms. The lipid is ‘saturated’ with hydrogen.

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5
Q

How does glucose structure allow it do do its function

A

Its structure makes it soluble so it can be easily transported, and its chemical bonds contain lots of energy.

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6
Q

function of lipoproteins

A

Cholesterol needs to be attached to protein to be moved around, so the body forms lipoproteins

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7
Q

What is the function of the heart?

A

To pump oxygenated blood to the cells of the body.

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8
Q

How does a blood clot form

A

A protein called thromboplastin is
released from the damaged blood vessel.
Thromboplastin, along with calcium ions from the plasma,
triggers the conversion of prothrombin (a soluble protein)
into thrombin (an enzyme).
Thrombin then catalyses the conversion of fibrinogen
(a soluble protein) to fibrin (solid insoluble fibres).
The fibrin fibres tangle together and form a mesh in which
platelets (small fragments of cells in the blood) and red
blood cells get trapped — this forms the blood clot.

(diagram in book)

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9
Q

What are coronary arteries?

A

Arteries that supply blood to the heart muscle itself.

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10
Q

What is maltose made of and is it di or poly

A

Two a-glucose molecules are joined together by a 1-4 glycosidic bond

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11
Q

What are the tails of fatty acids made of?

A

Hydrocarbons (carbon chains with hydrogen atoms).

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12
Q

What is a myocardial infarction and what are they usually caused by?

A

Commonly known as a heart attack, caused by a blood clot blocking a coronary artery.

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13
Q

What is a benefits associated with anticoagulants?

A

Anticoagulants can be used to treat
people who already have blood clots
or CVD — they prevent any existing
blood clots from growing any larger
and prevent any new blood clots from
forming. However, anticoagulants
can’t get rid of existing blood clots.

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14
Q

What is the structure of a triglyceride?

A

One glycerol molecule and three fatty acids joined by ester bonds.

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15
Q

How does Atheromas Increase the Risk of Thrombosis in Arteries

A

An atheroma can rupture (burst through) the endothelium of an artery, damaging the artery wall and leaving a rough surface. This triggers thrombosis (blood clotting) — a blood clot forms at the site of the rupture .
This blood clot can cause a complete blockage of the artery, or it can
become dislodged and block a blood vessel elsewhere in the body.
The blood flow to tissues supplied by the blocked blood vessel will be severely
restricted, so less oxygen will reach those tissues, resulting in damage.
Heart attack, stroke and deep vein thrombosis are three forms of cardiovascular disease that can be caused by blood clots

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16
Q

Ventricular systole process

A

The walls ofthe ventricles contract
Ventricular volume decreases
Ventricular pressure increases
The pressure in the ventricles rises above that the atria
This forces the AV valves to close, preventing backflow of blood
The pressure in the ventricles rises above that in the aorta and pulmonary artery
This forces the semilunar(SL) valves open so blood is forced into the arteries and out of the heart

During this period, the atria are relaxing; atrial diastole coincides with ventricular systole
The blood flow to the heart continues, so the relaxed atria begin to fill with blood again

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17
Q

What can a ruptured atheroma trigger?

A

Thrombosis (blood clotting).

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18
Q

Why do multicellular organisms need a mass transport system?

A

Diffusion across the outer membrane would be too slow because of the large distance the substances would have to travel to reach all the cells that why we need a mass transport system

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19
Q

What causes a stroke?

A

A blood clot in an artery leading to the brain, reducing blood and oxygen supply.

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20
Q

What is the purpose of the coarse adjustment knob?

A

To move the objective lens closer to the slide.

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21
Q

What is the formula for calculating BMI?

A

BMI = body mass (kg) / height^2 (m^2).

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22
Q

What are triglycerides

A

a kind of lipid

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23
Q

What characteristic of Daphnia allows monitoring of their heart rate?

A

They are transparent.

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24
Q

Where are unsaturated lipids mostly found?

A

In plants, e.g. olive oil.

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25
Q

How does a hydrolysis reaction work in carbohydrates

A

a molecule of water reacts with the glycosidic bond, breaking it apart.

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26
Q

What is a wet mount used for?

A

Looking at tiny organisms that live in water.

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27
Q

What are the two types of lipoproteins?

A

High density lipoproteins (HDLs) and low density lipoproteins (LDLs).

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28
Q

What is adhesion

A

Water being able to hydrogen bond to other molecules like to the sides of the vessels

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29
Q

benefits of Platelet Inhibitory

A

As with anticoagulants, these
can be used to treat people who
already have blood clots or CVD.

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30
Q

How can an obese person change

A

change diet and exercise more

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31
Q

What is released during the formation of a triglyceride?

A

A molecule of water.

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32
Q

What is the recommended daily intake of Calories for men?

A

2500 calories

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33
Q

Condensation and hydrolysis of disaccharides drawing

A

book

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34
Q

What should you write down when drawing a creature under a microscope?

A

The magnification used.

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35
Q

differences between mono and di sacharides in terms of properties

A

Disaccharides are also soluble (though not as soluble as monosaccharides) and their chemical bonds store more energy than monosaccharides.

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36
Q

How does hydrolysis happen in lipids

A

a molecule of water is added to each
ester bond to break it apart, and the triglyceride splits up into three fatty acids
and one glycerol molecule

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37
Q

What precautions should be taken during a heart dissection?

A

Cut away from yourself and disinfect work surfaces after.

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38
Q

What are some examples of anticoagulants?

A

Examples include warfarin and heparin.

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39
Q

What is the role of the left side of the heart?

A

To pump oxygenated blood to the rest of the body.

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40
Q

How does smoking affect antioxidants in the blood?

A

Smoking decreases antioxidants in the blood, these are important for protecting cells from damage. Fewer antioxidants means cell damage in the artery walls is more likely, and this can lead to atheroma formation, which increases the risk of CVD.

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41
Q

what are statistics backed by

A

statistical chance of something unfavourable happening is supported by scientific research.
E.g. the actual risk of dying from CVD is 60% higher for smokers than for non-smokers.

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42
Q

What is the hardening of arteries caused by atheromas called?

A

Atherosclerosis

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43
Q

What is the common animal used to test the effect of caffeine on heart rate?

A

Daphnia

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44
Q

What are cabohydrates and what are they made from

A

Most carbohydrates are large, complex molecules (polymers) composed of
long chains of monosaccharides (monomers)

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45
Q

Why is water considered a good solvent?

A

Water’s dipole nature allows important ions to dissolve in it, facilitating transport in living organisms.

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46
Q

What is deep vein thrombosis (DVT)?

A

Formation of a blood clot in a vein deep inside the body, usually in leg veins.

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47
Q

What is endothelial dysfunction?

A

When the endothelium can’t function normally due to damage.

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48
Q

How can genetics affect CVD risk?

A

Inherited alleles can increase the likelihood of high blood pressure or cholesterol.

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49
Q

What happens if energy intake is lower than energy output?

A

person looses weight since fat reserves are being used

if this energy difference is large and is sustained over a long period of time, the person is likely to become underweight.

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50
Q

What is Sucrose made of is ti di or poly

A

a‑glucose and fructose with a 1-2 glycosidic bond.

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51
Q

What is a single monosaccharides called

A

carbohydrate

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52
Q

Platelet Inhibitory what do they do and how

A

Reduce the Formation of Blood Clots

They are a type of anticoagulant.They work by preventing platelets clumping together to form a blood clot. So, they reduce the formation of blood clots, reducing the chance of a blood vessel becoming blocked by a clot.

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53
Q

What can occur if large areas of the heart are affected by a heart attack?

A

Complete heart failure, which is often fatal.

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54
Q

What are mass transport systems used for?

A

To carry raw materials from specialized exchange organs (e.g., lungs and digestive system) to body cells and remove metabolic waste (e.g., carbon dioxide).

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55
Q

all Factors that increase the risk of CVD

A

Diet
A diet high in saturated fat (see p. 25) increases the risk of CVD. This is because it increases
blood cholesterol level, which increases atheroma formation. Atheromas can lead to the
formation of blood clots, which can cause a heart attack, stroke or DVT.
A diet high in salt also increases the risk of CVD because it
increases the risk of high blood pressure (see below).

High blood pressure
High blood pressure increases the risk of damage to the artery walls, which increases
the risk of atheroma formation, which can lead to CVD. Excessive alcohol consumption,
stress and diet can all increase blood pressure.

Smoking
* Carbon monoxide in cigarette smoke combines with haemoglobin (the protein that carries
oxygen in the blood) and reduces the amount of oxygen transported in the blood. This reduces
the amount of oxygen available to tissues. If the heart muscle doesn’t receive enough oxygen it
can lead to a heart attack and if the brain doesn’t receive enough oxygen it can lead to a stroke.
* Nicotine in cigarette smoke makes platelets sticky, increasing the chance of blood clots
forming, which increases the risk of CVD.
* Smoking also decreases the amount of antioxidants in the blood — these are important for
protecting cells from damage. Fewer antioxidants means cell damage in the artery walls is
more likely, and this can lead to atheroma formation, which increases the risk of CVD.

Inactivity
A lack of exercise increases the risk of CVD because it increases blood pressure (see above).
Factors Beyond Your Control:
Genetics
Some people inherit particular alleles (different versions of genes, see page 50) that make them
more likely to have high blood pressure or high blood cholesterol, so they are more likely to
suffer from CVD (see above).

Age
The risk of developing CVD increases with age. This is partly because plaque
can build up very slowly over time, which can eventually lead to CVD.

Gender
Men are three times more likely to suffer from CVD than pre-menopausal women. This may be due
to their different levels of hormones — for example, the hormone oestrogen, which is typically higher
in females, increases levels of ‘good’ cholesterol (HDL) — see p. 25. The relatively low level of this
hormone in men can lead to higher levels of total blood cholesterol and increase the risk of CVD.

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56
Q

Daphnia core practicle

A

Make up a range of caffeine solutions of
different concentrations and a control
solution that has no caffeine in it at all.

Transfer one Daphnia into the dimple on a cavity slide.
Using a pipette, place a few drops of caffeine solution onto the Daphnia.
Wait for 5 minutes while the caffeine is absorbed.
Place the slide onto the stage of a light microscope and adjust the focus so you can see the beating
heart of the Daphnia. You can find the heart to the back side of the gut and above the brood pouch.
Count the number of heartbeats in 20 seconds, timed using a stopwatch,
and multiply this by three to calculate beats per minute (heart rate).
Repeat this 10 times using the same concentration of caffeine but a different Daphnia individual each time.
Repeat the experiment using the other concentrations of
caffeine solution and the control solution.
Compare the results to see how caffeine concentration affects heart rate.

Whilst keeping all extraneous variables constant like temperature

| | | | |

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57
Q

What does the NHS provide to help people quit smoking?

A

Free advice and nicotine patches.

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58
Q

Does smoking increase CVD

A

yes

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59
Q

Draw the formation of a triglyceride

A

book

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60
Q

What do the ventricles do?

A

They push blood out of the heart.

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61
Q

What is the function of mass transport systems in multicellular organisms?

A

To carry raw materials from specialised exchange organs(lungs and digestive system) to body cells and remove metabolic waste.(carbon dioxide)

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62
Q

What are atheromas associated with?

A

Diseases of the heart and blood vessels.

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63
Q

What do atheromas increase the risk of?

A

Blood clots forming, leading to an increased risk of heart attack.

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64
Q

What is the relationship between caffeine concentration and heart rate in Daphnia?

A

As caffeine concentration increases, heart rate also increases.

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65
Q

How does excessive alcohol consumption affect blood pressure?

A

It can increase blood pressure, increasing the risk of atheroma formation contributing to the risk of CVD.

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66
Q

What does nicotine do in relation to blood clots?

A

It makes platelets sticky, increasing the chance of blood clots forming. Which increases the risk of CVD.

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67
Q

risks of Platelet Inhibitory

A

Side effects include rashes,
diarrhoea, nausea, liver function
problems and excessive bleeding,
especially after a serious injury

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68
Q

How do you calculate heart rate with a cardiac cycle graph

A

say it takes 0.54 seconds to complete
one cardiac cycle (or one heartbeat).
In one minute there will be:
60 ÷ 0.54 = 110 beats (2 s.f.).
So the heart rate is 110 beats
per minute

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69
Q

What can happen when a blood clot forms at the site of a ruptured atheroma?

A

It can cause complete blockage of the artery or dislodge to block another vessel.

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70
Q

What are the two types of lipids?

A

Saturated lipids and unsaturated lipids.

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71
Q

Atrial systole process

A

The walls ofthe atria contract
Atrial volume decreases
Atrial pressure increases
The pressure in the atria rises above thatin the ventricles, forcing the atrioventricular(AV) valves open
Blood is forced into the ventricles
There is a slightincrease in ventricular pressure and chamber volume as the ventricles receive the
blood from the atria
The ventricles are relaxed atthis point; ventricular diastole coincides with atrial systole

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72
Q

What is the purpose of adding a stain to a specimen?

A

To enhance visibility of the specimen.

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73
Q

What do veins do?

A

They carry blood back to the heart.

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74
Q

What are the purpose of atrioventricular (AV) valves? and two types

A

They link the atria to the ventricles and prevent backflow of blood.

Bicuspid vale (left side)

tricuspid valve (right side)

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75
Q

What can be observed in a heart dissection?

A

The thickness of ventricle walls compared to atria walls.

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76
Q

Characteristics of HIGH DENSITY LIPOPROTEINS (HDLs)

A

They are mainly protein.
They transport cholesterol from body tissues
to the liver where it’s recycled or excreted.
Their function is to reduce total blood
cholesterol when the level is too high

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77
Q

How has scientific research influenced smoking awareness?

A

Led to TV adverts and warnings on cigarette packets about smoking risks.

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78
Q

What do the heart valves depend on to open or close?

A

The pressure of the heart chambers. Higher pressure behind opens and vice versa

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79
Q

What ethical concerns exist regarding invertebrate experiments?

A
  • they can’t give consent and they may be
    subjected to painful procedures.
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80
Q

What can cause DVT?

A

Prolonged inactivity, e.g., during long-haul flights, and increased age.

81
Q

What is the significance of glycogen’s side branches?

A

They allow for quick release of stored glucose.

82
Q

What is the first step in using a light microscope?

A

Clip the slide onto the stage.

83
Q

How to Measure the Amount of Vitamin C in Your Food experiment

A

Make up several vitamin C solutions of different, known concentrations.
Use a measuring cylinder to measure out a set volume of DCPIP( a blue dye that turns colourless in the presence of vitamin C.) (at a set concentration) into a test tube.
Add one of the vitamin C solutions to the DCPIP, drop by drop, using a pipette.
Gently shake the test tube for a set length of time, timed using a
stopwatch, after each drop of vitamin C solution is added.
When the solution turns colourless, record the volume
(no. of drops) of vitamin C solution that has been added.
Repeat the experiment twice more, with the same solution,
and take an average of the three readings.
Make sure you keep all the other variables constant during the
experiment, e.g. temperature.
Repeat the above procedure with each solution.
Use the results to draw a curve of best fit, showing volume of vitamin C
solution against its concentration — this is the calibration curve.

84
Q

Why is starch good for storage?

A

Starch is also insoluble in water, so it doesn’t cause water to enter cells by osmosis which would make them swell. This makes it good for storage. The angles of the glycosidic bonds give it a coiled structure, almost like a cylinder. This makes it compact, so it’s really good for storage because you can fit more in to a small space.

85
Q

When evaluating a design what should you look out for

A

Sample size — the greater the number of people used in a study,
the more reliable the results.

Selecting the sample should also be done carefully. The sample should be representative (i.e. it should reflect the variety ofcharacteristics that are found in the population you’re interested in studying) so that the results can be generalised to the
whole population. A sample that is unrepresentative is biased and can’t reliably be generalised to the whole population.

Variables — the more variables (other factors that could affect the results) that have been controlled
in a study, the more reliable the results. This also makes the results more valid — by controlling the
variables, you’re making sure that you’re only testing the thing you want to.

Data collection — the less bias involved in collecting the data, the more reliable the results.

Controls — the presence of controls increases the validity of the results.
Repetition by other scientists — if other scientists produce the same results,
then the results are more reliable.

86
Q

What do the atria do?

A

They push blood a short distance into the ventricles.

87
Q

What is the role of the right side of the heart?

A

To pump deoxygenated blood to the lungs.

88
Q

What is a stroke?

A

Rapid loss of brain function due to disruption in blood supply to the brain.

89
Q

Obesity indicators examples

A

BMI and waist to hip ratio

90
Q

how can people’s perception of risk may be very different from the actual risk

A

People may overestimate the risk — they may believe things to be a greater
risk than they actually are. E.g. they may have known someone who smoked and died from CVD, and therefore think that if you smoke you will die of CVD. Also, there are often articles in the media about health issues,
e.g. articles that highlight the link between smoking and CVD or the link
between having a high BMI (see p. 27) and CVD. Constant exposure to
information like this can make people constantly worry that they’ll get CVD.

  • Some people may underestimate the risk — they may believe things to be a
    lower risk than they actually are. This could be due to a lack of information
    making them unaware of the factors that contribute to diseases like CVD.
91
Q

What is the formula for calculating energy budget?

A

Energy input – energy output = energy budget

92
Q

Melting points between un and saturated fats

A

Unsaturated lipids melt at lower temperatures than saturated ones.

93
Q

What is Lactose made of di or poly

A

b‑glucose and galactose with a 1-4 glycosidic bond.

94
Q

What is a dipole molecule and why is water one

A

it has a partial negative (beta–) charge on one side and a partial positive (beta+) charge on the other.

95
Q

What is the inner lining of arteries called?

A

Endothelium

96
Q

What is a dry mount?

A

A specimen placed on a slide with a cover slip, no water or stain added.

97
Q

What are the treatments for CVD

A

antihypertensives

statins

Anticoagulants

Platelet Inhibitory Drugs

98
Q

Which gender is more likely to suffer from CVD and why?

A

Men are three times more likely than pre-menopausal women. due to them not having oestrogen The relatively low level of this hormone in men can lead to higher levels of total blood cholesterol and increase the risk of CVD.

99
Q

How do you achieve a clear image when looking through a microscope?

A

Adjust the focus with the fine adjustment knob.

100
Q

What is risk

A

the chance of something unfavourable happening.
E.g. if you smoke you increase your chance of developing CVD.

101
Q

What is the mass transport system in mammals?

A

The circulatory system, where the heart pumps blood around the body.

102
Q

Why do some think it’s more acceptable to experiment on invertebrates?

A

they’re considered to be simpler organisms than vertebrates. For example, they have
a much less sophisticated nervous system, which could mean that they feel less pain (or no pain).

103
Q

What is cohesion and why is this good

A

Cohesion is the attraction between molecules of the same type (e.g. two water molecules). Water molecules are very cohesive because they’re dipolar. making water flow which is good for transporting substances

104
Q

What types of glycosidic bonds does amylopectin have?

A

1-4 and 1-6 glycosidic bonds

105
Q

How does age influence the risk of developing CVD?

A

The risk increases with age due to slow plaque buildup over time.

106
Q

What is a cavity slide used for?

A

To hold larger specimens or liquids.

107
Q

Arteries characteristics

A

They’re thick-walled, muscular and have elastic tissue in the walls to cope with the high pressure caused by the heartbeat.
The inner lining (endothelium) is folded, allowing the artery to expand — this also helps it to cope with high pressure.

small lumen to maintain the high pressure

108
Q

What is the main energy storage material in plants?

A

Starch

109
Q

Three examples of disacharides

A

Maltose, lactose and sucrose

110
Q

How does a high salt diet affect CVD risk?

A

It increases the risk of high blood pressure, increases the risk of damage to the artery walls, which increases the risk of atheroma formation, which can lead to CVD

111
Q

Cardiac diastole process

A

The ventricles and atria are both relaxed
The pressure in the ventricles drops below that in the aorta and pulmonary artery, forcing the SL valves
to close
The atria continue to fill with blood
Blood returns to the heart via the vena cava and pulmonary vein
Pressure in the atria rises above that in the ventricles,forcing the AV valves open
Blood flows passively into the ventricles without need of atrial systole
The cycle then begins again with atrial systole

112
Q

Vein characteristics

A

They’re wider than equivalent arteries,
with very little elastic or muscle tissue as the blood is under lower pressure. Veins contain valves to stop the blood flowing backwards. Blood flow through the veins is helped by the contraction of the body muscles surrounding them.

large lumen to allow large amounts of blood to go through to maintain the fast pace of arteries

113
Q

Everything about glycogen

A

Glycogen — the main energy storage material in animals
1) Animal cells get energy from glucose too.
But animals store excess glucose as glycogen —
another polysaccharide of alpha-glucose.
2) Its structure is very similar to amylopectin (it has 1-4 and
1-6 glycosidic bonds), except that it has loads more side
branches coming off it. Loads of branches means that
stored glucose can be released quickly, which is
important for energy release in animals.
3) 4) It’s also a very compact molecule, so it’s good for storage.
Like starch, glycogen’s also insoluble in water,
so it doesn’t cause cells to swell by osmosis.
5) It’s a large molecule, so it can store lots of energy.

114
Q

What is a fibrous plaque formed from the buildup of cells and lipids called?

A

Atheroma

115
Q

Where are saturated lipids mainly found?

A

In animal fats, e.g. butter.

116
Q

What is the role of pressure changes in the cardiac cycle?

A

Pressure changes in the heart chambers drive the opening and closing of valves and the flow of blood.

117
Q

What is the purpose of the cords attached to AV valves?

A

To prevent the valves from being forced into the atria when ventricles contract.

118
Q

What are some side effects of statins?

A

Side effects include muscle and joint pain,
digestive system problems and an increased
risk of diabetes. Nosebleeds, headaches
and nausea are also common side effects.

119
Q

What makes lipids insoluble in water?

A

Hydrophobic tails of fatty acids.

120
Q

What property do the tails of fatty acids have?

A

They are hydrophobic (water-repelling).

121
Q

What is cholesterol and why is it needed?

A

A type of lipid made in the body and its needed for the body to function normally

122
Q

What substances are exchanged in capillaries?

A

Oxygen glucose waste products carbon dioxide

123
Q

Example of platelet inhibitory drug

A

aspirin

124
Q

What happens if energy intake exceeds energy output?

A

Person gains weight due to the excess energy turning into fat reserves

If the energy difference is a lot and it’s sustained over a long period of time, the person could become obese.

125
Q

What is glucose

A

is a monosaccharide with six carbon atoms in each molecule.

126
Q

How do individual cells obtain nutrients and dispose of waste?

A

They get nutrients and oxygen from the blood and dispose of metabolic waste into the blood.

127
Q

Draw alpha glucose molecule

A

file:///var/folders/fd/f2jpj84d7qqd4m4zny79zpk00000gn/T/TemporaryItems/NSIRD_screencaptureui_CaxbtG/Screenshot%202024-12-07%20at%2011.10.07.png

128
Q

What is the recommended daily intake of Calories for women?

A

2000 calories

129
Q

What are triglycerides formed by?

A

Condensation reactions and broken up by hydrolysis reactions. Between glycerol and fatty acids tails

130
Q

Why does the left ventricle have thicker walls?

A

It needs to contract powerfully to pump blood around the body and To generate higher pressure to pump blood .

131
Q

How do heart valves prevent backflow of blood?

A

They close when pressure is higher in front of them.

132
Q

Do all fatty acids have the same structure?

A

Yes, but the hydrocarbon tail varies.

133
Q

What is energy budget

A

the amount of energy taken in by an
organism (in food) and the amount of energy used up by an organism

134
Q

characteristics of LOW DENSITY LIPOPROTEINS (LDLs)

A

They are mainly lipid.
They transport cholesterol from the liver to the
blood, where it circulates until needed by cells.
Their function is to increase total blood
cholesterol when the level is too low.

135
Q

What are capillary walls like?

A

Capillary walls are only one cell thick.

136
Q

Everything unsaturated fats

A

have lower melting points

unsaturated lipids are mostly found in
plants (e.g. olive oil)

Unsaturated lipids do have double bonds between the carbon atoms in
their hydrocarbon tails. These double bonds cause the chain to kink.
If they have two or more of them, the lipid is called polyunsaturated.

137
Q

What increases the risk of Cardiovascular Disease (CVD)? diet

A

A diet high in saturated fat increases blood cholesterol levels, leading to atheroma formation. Atheromas can lead to the
formation of blood clots, which can cause a heart attack, stroke or DVT.

138
Q

What effect does cigarette smoke have on oxygen transport?

A

Carbon monoxide reduces the amount of oxygen transported in the blood. due to carbon monoxide combining with the haemoglobin. This reduces the amount of oxygen available to tissues. If the heart muscle doesn’t receive enough oxygen it can lead to a heart attack and if the brain doesn’t receive enough oxygen it can lead to a stroke.

139
Q

How do cells get energy?

A

Energy is obtained via aerobic respiration using glucose and oxygen.

140
Q

How do single-celled organisms obtain materials?

A

Materials can diffuse directly into the cell across the cell membrane. The diffusion rate is quick because of the short distance the substances have to travel

141
Q

High Blood Cholesterol Increases the Risk of CVD?

A

yes

142
Q

Benefits of Antihypertensives

A

The different types of antihypertensives
work in different ways, so they can be
given in combination to reduce blood
pressure. Also, blood pressure can be
monitored at home, so the patient can
see if the drugs are working.

143
Q

What do semi-lunar (SL) valves do?

A

They link the ventricles to the pulmonary artery and aorta, preventing backflow.

144
Q

How do cells dispose of metabolic waste?

A

By releasing it into the blood.

145
Q

How does blood flow through the heart?

A

Blood only flows in one direction through the heart.

146
Q

What is water and what does it do

A

Water is the medium in which all metabolic reactions take place in cells and in which all substances are transported around the body

Water transports substances. Substances can be transported more easily if they’re dissolved in a solvent. So the fact that water’s a liquid and a solvent means it can easily transport all sorts of materials, like glucose and oxygen, around plants and animals.

147
Q

What is the function of capillaries?

A

They enable metabolic exchange between cells and blood.

148
Q

What are three forms of cardiovascular disease caused by blood clots?

A

Heart attack, stroke, and deep vein thrombosis.

149
Q

how are Disaccharides and Polysaccharides formed

A

Monosaccharides are joined together by glycosidic bonds in a condensation reaction (a reaction where a molecule of water is released). A hydrogen atom on one monosaccharide bonds to a hydroxyl (OH) group on the other, releasing a molecule of water.

150
Q

What differentiates saturated and unsaturated lipids?

A

Their hydrocarbon tails.

151
Q

Draw full diagram of the heart

A

file:///var/folders/fd/f2jpj84d7qqd4m4zny79zpk00000gn/T/TemporaryItems/NSIRD_screencaptureui_ZO0uCv/Screenshot%202024-12-06%20at%2015.15.00.png

152
Q

What is the main energy storage material in animals?

A

Glycogen

153
Q

What is a ‘normal’ BMI range for adults?

A

18 to 25

154
Q

Risks of Antihypertensives

A

Palpitations (rapid beating of the heart),
abnormal heart rhythms, fainting, headaches
and drowsiness are all side effects of these
drugs caused by the blood pressure becoming too low. Other side effects include allergic reactions and depression.

155
Q

What are symptoms of a heart attack?

A

Chest pain, upper body pain, shortness of breath, and sweating.

156
Q

What hormone is linked to lower CVD risk in women?

A

Oestrogen increases levels of ‘good’ cholesterol (HDL).

157
Q

What is a benefit of using statins?

A

Statins reduce the risk of developing CVD.

158
Q

What happens if a coronary artery is blocked by a blood clot?

A

An area of the heart muscle is cut off from its blood supply, leading to a heart attack.

159
Q

What do arteries do?

A

They carry blood from the heart to the body.

160
Q

What is atherosclerosis

A

The hardening of arteries, caused by atheromas

161
Q

What can you see on the outside of the heart?

A

The four main vessels attached to it.

162
Q

What is coronary heart disease (CHD)?

A

Condition where coronary arteries have atheromas, restricting blood flow to the heart.

163
Q

How do you prepare a wet mount?

A

Pipette a drop of water and place the specimen on top.

164
Q

What is the cardiac cycle?

A

The cardiac cycle is all the changes that happen in the heart during one heartbeat, involving contraction and relaxation of the atria and ventricles.

165
Q

Factors that increase the risk of CVD lifestyle and non lifestyle examples

A

Diet. high blood pressure. smoking. inactivity

genetics age gender

166
Q

What should you avoid when placing a cover slip on a wet mount?

A

Air bubbles

167
Q

What is the effect of inactivity on CVD risk?

A

A lack of exercise increases blood pressure, raising CVD risk.

168
Q

What is a consequence of high blood pressure?

A

increases the risk of damages to artery walls, increasing the risk of atheroma formation and CVD.

169
Q

Can a diet high in saturated fats increase risk of CVD and why

A

yes because it increases your blood cholesterol level

170
Q

What is the role of anticoagulants in treating CVD?

A

Anticoagulants reduce blood clotting, decreasing the likelihood of blood clots forming in artery walls, so there’s less chance of a blood vessel becoming blocked by a blood clot thus lowering CVD risk.

171
Q

Everything about starch

A

Starch — the main energy storage material in plants
Cells get energy from glucose. Plants store excess glucose as starch (when a plant needs more glucose for energy it breaks down starch to release the glucose).
Starch is a mixture of two polysaccharides of alpha-glucose
— amylose and amylopectin:

  • Amylose — a long, unbranched chain of glucose joined together with
    1-4 glycosidic bonds. The angles of the glycosidic bonds give it a
    coiled structure, almost like a cylinder. This makes it compact, so it’s really
    good for storage because you can fit more in to a small space.
  • Amylopectin — a long, branched chain of glucose that contains
    1-4 and 1-6 glycosidic bonds. Its side branches allow the enzymes
    that break down the molecule to get at the glycosidic bonds easily.
    This means that the glucose can be released quickly.
    Starch is also insoluble in water, so it doesn’t cause water to enter cells by osmosis
    which would make them swell. This makes it good for storage.
172
Q

Is obesity a risk factor of CVD

A

Yes

173
Q

What does the formation of an atheroma cause in the artery?

A

Partial blockage of the lumen and increased blood pressure.

174
Q

What are the two main types of blood in the heart?

A

Deoxygenated blood and oxygenated blood.

175
Q

What feature allows arteries to cope with high pressure?

A

Muscular and elastic tissue and the endothelium is folding allowing it to expand

176
Q

What is a risk associated with anticoagulants?

A

If a person taking these drugs is badly injured, the reduction in blood clotting can cause excessive bleeding, which can lead to fainting (and in serious cases death). Other side effects include allergic reactions, osteoporosis (weakened bones) and swelling of the tissues. These drugs can also damage the fetus if they’re taken during pregnancy.

177
Q

How do individual cells in tissues and organs get nutrients and oxygen?

A

From the blood.

178
Q

What do antihypertensives do what do they include and how do they help

A

Antihypertensives Reduce High Blood Pressure

These drugs include beta-blockers (which reduce the strength of the heartbeat) and vasodilators (which widen the blood vessels). They also include diuretics, most of which work by reducing the amount of sodium that’s reabsorbed by the blood in the kidneys. This results in less water
being reabsorbed (due to osmosis), which reduces blood volume. All of these drugs reduce blood pressure, so there’s less chance of damage occurring to the walls of the arteries. This reduces the risk of atheromas forming and blood clots developing

179
Q

How do statins help in CVD treatment?

A

Statins reduce blood cholesterol by reducing the amount of ‘bad’ LDL cholesterol(produced inside the liver) in the blood, lowering the risk of atheroma formation and CVD.

180
Q

What happens to the endothelium when it is damaged?

A

It triggers an inflammatory response with white blood cells moving in.

181
Q

Which objective lens should you select first when using a microscope?

A

The lowest-powered objective lens.

182
Q

Which ventricle has thicker walls?

A

The left ventricle has thicker walls than the right ventricle.

183
Q

What types of glycosidic bonds does glycogen have?

A

1-4 and 1-6 glycosidic bonds

184
Q

What is the mass transport system in mammals

A

The circulatory system.

185
Q

name two polysaccharides

A

Startch and glycogen

186
Q

What are the two phases of the cardiac cycle?

A

The two phases are systole (contraction) and diastole (relaxation).

187
Q

What is glucose function

A

the main energy source in animals and plants.

188
Q

How does glycogen’s structure compare to amylopectin?

A

Its a larger molecule with more side branches

189
Q

What do organisms need energy for?

A

To grow, move, reproduce

190
Q

What should you watch out on in graph when determining if something is a risk factors

A

for mixing up correlation and causation in any data you’re given — just because results
are correlated doesn’t prove that a change in one causes a change in the other

191
Q

What forms when white blood cells and lipids clump together under the endothelium?

A

Fatty streaks.

192
Q

What is two monosaccharides joined together called and what about 2 or more

A

Disaccharides and Polysaccharides

193
Q

What type of glycosidic bonds does amylose have?

A

1-4 glycosidic bonds

194
Q

Structure of water

A

Water is composed of atoms of hydrogen and oxygen

One atom of oxygen combines with two atoms of hydrogen by sharing electrons; this is covalent bonding The sharing of the electrons is uneven between the oxygen and hydrogen atoms

The oxygen atom attracts the electrons more strongly than the hydrogen atoms, resulting in a weak negatively charged region on the oxygen atom (δ ) and a weak positively charged region on the hydrogen atoms (δ )

195
Q

Characteristics of capillaries

A

They are where metabolic exchange occurs — substances are exchanged between cells and the capillaries. There are networks of capillaries in tissue (called capillary beds), which increase the surface area for exchange. Capillary walls are only one cell thick, which speeds up diffusion of substances (e.g. glucose and oxygen) into and out of cells.

196
Q

What happens during the formation of a triglyceride?

A

A hydrogen atom from glycerol bonds to a hydroxyl group on a fatty acid, releasing water.

197
Q

What is thrombosis?

A

A process used by the body to prevent blood loss when a blood vessel is damaged.

198
Q

Cardiac cycle graph :pressure atria ventricles and 3 stages

A

file:///var/folders/fd/f2jpj84d7qqd4m4zny79zpk00000gn/T/TemporaryItems/NSIRD_screencaptureui_6S2i1e/Screenshot%202024-12-06%20at%2015.58.29.png

199
Q

Fatty streaks.

A

white blood cells and lipids clump together under the endothelium?

Biology (5 decks)

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