Lifecourse Epi Lecture 10 Flashcards
Case Study: Grandmothers and Granddaughters
Study Background
Evidence that inadequate nutrition in childhood affects long term physical development and cognitive skills
This affects later life productivity and socioeconomic status
Cash transfer programs been associated so far only with adults and their social security, but can have far reaching consequences
South African old age pension program, a successful cash transfer program in developing world
Historically, racially discriminatory; post-apartheid system universal, non-contributory
Means tested: All women over 60 and men over 65 entitled over benefits
In 1993, more than 80% of old African women and 77% of old African men received pensions (max. of 370 Rand/mo. (approx. $43)
More than quarter African children under 5 live with a pension recipient
Weight for height reflects short run nutrition and illnesses and recovers after periods of malnutrition
Methods: Case Study Grandmothers and Granddaughters
Methods
Data from 1993 National Household Survey
9000 randomly selected households of races
Anthropometric indicators: weight for height, height for age for children from 1-5 years
Targeted poor households and children already disadvantaged on average
Height for age reflected past nutrition and illnesses: therefore relative disdavantage between eligible and non-eligible households calculated
Case Study: Grandmothers and Granddaughters Results and Conclusions
Study Results
Pensions received by grandmothers associated with an increase in height for age of girls ( by 1.6 S.D.)
No significant effect on boys
Pensions received by grandfathers not associated with improvements in height for boys or girls
Conclusion
Efficiency of cash transfer programs differ greatly based on how they are administered
Generation
Three phenomena can be called a generation:
Age groups, such as children, youth, adults and old people (biological time)
Historical generations, groups of birth cohorts that share a comparable social history (historical time)
Family generations, location in a system of ranked descent (chronological time)
Intergenerational research and policy lie in the intersection of these three phenomena
Macro/ micro perspectives on intergenerational ties
Changing Intergenerational Ties
Altered patterns of mortality and fertility make family structures “top-heavy” and vertically extended
Demographic transition increases the number of generations, but decreases number of relatives
Intergenerational connections, e.g., grandparent-grandchild connection, more socially prominent and personally significant
Co-longevity has increased duration of family ties = Increase life expency has created greater intergenerationality
Multi-generational model of parent-child relations
Omega generation: No generations above them
Janus generation: Act as parents and children
Alpha generation: Have no generation below
Coinciding responsibilities (parents and children) are rare
Janus generations in US & UK give ‘up’ and ‘down’- high exchangers
Intergenerational Transfers
Family serves a redistributive function in the total flow of intergenerational transfers
Public transfers from the employed to older persons often channeled back to younger individuals through family transfers
Flows can be non-material, in-kind and symbolic transfers
Transfers strengthen intergenerational ties, thus enhancing social embeddedness
Intergenerational Equity
“ The concept or idea of fairness or justice in relationships between generations ( children, youth, adults, seniors) in terms of resources”
Informal, socially sanctioned rules
Intergenerational equity arises as normal balance of generational support shifts to upper end of lifecycle
Global Aging and Equity Across Adjacent Generations
The increased costs of longevity: Chronic disease, long term care and welfare costs difficult to bear in developed countries
In developing ones, these costs also threaten resource allocation to public health and preventive measures for infectious disease
With global aging comes a sharpening of the problem of intergenerational equity, both in developed and developing countries (Daniels)
‘ The Age Bias’: Transfer of Resources in Developed Countries
Finite resources available for social spending
Conflict for resources will inevitably arise due to resource competition
Intolerable burden unless present level of entitlements ( e.g social security) reduced as aging population increases
Intergenerational Equity:Questioning an Old Social Contract
Developed countries: Changing commitment to resource-transfer schemes for elderly that face constraints
Fear that politicians shifting costs to future ( Saving Social Security in 1983 by raising retirement age in 21st century)
Others argue that access to labor market for old restricted and increases dependence on state
Growing Welfare Crisis: Mandating Family Support
US:
“People cannot be required to do what cannot be done”: In the US, nearly one fourth of all the elderly in 1989 had no children and another 20% had only one child
Childlessness is almost ‘invisible’ with changing fertility in the lifecourse. Childlessness high in cohorts born in developed countries in 1960’s Implications for rising numbers of older adults without children.
Developing countries: Changing family structures and greater dependency on welfare, globalization and labor migration in non-west
China:
With China’s one child policy, even more Chinese elderly may have no children or at most one
The Chinese attempt to mandate filial support (a 1996 law) cannot solve the problem, known as the 4-2-1 problem in China: four grandparents, two parents, one child
Intergenerational Equity: Three Approaches
- Just or fair policy needs longitudinal view
Tension: Even if politics is embedded in the moment ( e.g upcoming election!) - Different cohorts and age groups cooperate to solve common problem, risks and stakes
- Rethink needs and contributions: Job structures, career incentives and education patterns –be modified to improve the contribution of old
Formulations of Justice
(1) to each person an equal share,
(2) to each person according to individual need,
(3) to each person according to individual effort,
(4) to each person according to societal contribution,
(5) to each person according to merit.
Intergenerational Equity: The Prudential Lifespan Approach (Daniels)
Problem to give all cohorts equal ‘benefits ratios’ to avoid bias
All of us age ( “we all age”), each person needs to be treated fairly across lifespan
Need to adjust contributions and benefits of groups across time e.g to build up a ‘cushion’ of contributions if we are aware baby-boomers will retire
Need to treat people differently across lifespans and plan shared social solutions
