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Psychology 200 > Life Span Human Development Definitions Chapters 1-16 > Flashcards

Life Span Human Development Definitions Chapters 1-16 Flashcards

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0
Q

Nature-Nurture Issue

A

The degree to which genetic or hereditary influences (nature) and experiential or environmental influences (nurture) determine the kind of person you are

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1
Q

Human development

A

The multidisciplinary study of how people change and how they remain the same over time.

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2
Q

Continuity-Discontinuity Issue

A

Whether a particular developmental phenomenon represents a smooth progression throughout the life span (continuity) or a series of abrupt shifts (discontinuity)

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3
Q

Universal Versus Context-Specific Development Issue

A

Whether there is just one path of development or several paths

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4
Q

Biopsychosocial Framework

A

A useful way to organize the biological, psychological, and sociocultural forces on human development

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5
Q

Neuroscience

A

The study of brain and nervous system, especially in terms of brain behavior relationships

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6
Q

Theory

A

An organized set of ideas that is designed to explain development

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7
Q

Psychodynamic Theories

A

Theories proposing that development is largely determined by how well people resolve conflicts they face at different ages

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8
Q

Psychosocial Theory

A

Erikson’s proposal that personality development is determined by the interaction of an internal maturational plan and external societal demands

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9
Q

Epigenetic Principle

A

In Erikson’s theory, the idea that each psychosocial strength has its own special period of particular importance

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10
Q

Operant Conditioning

A

Learning paradigm in which the consequences of a behavior determine whether a behavior is repeated in the future

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11
Q

Reinforcement

A

A consequence that increase the future likelihood if the behavior that it follows

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12
Q

Punishment

A

A consequence that decreases the future likelihood of the behavior that it follows

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13
Q

Imitation or Observational Learning

A

Learning that occurs by simply watching how others behave

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14
Q

Self-Efficacy

A

People’s beliefs about their own abilities and talents

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15
Q

Information-Processing Theory

A

Theory proposing that human cognition consists of mental hardware and mental software

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16
Q

Ecological Theory

A

Theory based on idea that human development is inseparable from the environmental context in which a person develops

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17
Q

Microsystem

A

The people and objects in an individual’s immediate environment

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18
Q

Mesosystem

A

Provides connections across Microsystems

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19
Q

Exosystem

A

Social settings that a person may not experience firsthand but still influence development

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20
Q

Macrosystem

A

The cultures and subcultures in which the Microsystem, mesosystem, and exosystem are embedded

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21
Q

Competence

A

A person’s abilities

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22
Q

Environmental Press

A

Demands put on people by the environment

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23
Q

Life-Span Perspective

A

View that human development is multiply determined and cannot be understood within the scope of a single framework

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24
Q

Selective Optimization with Compensation (SOC) model

A

Model in which three processes (selection, optimization, and compensation) form a system of behavioral action that generates and regulates development and aging

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25
Q

Life-course perspective

A

Description of how various generations experience the biological, psychological, and sociocultural forces of development in their respective historical contexts

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26
Q

Systematic Observation

A

Watching people and carefully recording what they do or say

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27
Q

Naturalistic Observation

A

Technique in which people are observed as they behave spontaneously in some real-life situation

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28
Q

Structured observations

A

Technique in which a researcher creates a setting that is likely to elicit the behavior of interest

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29
Q

Self-reports

A

People’s answers to questions about the topic of interest

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30
Q

Reliability

A

Extent to which a measure provides a consistent index of a characteristic

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31
Q

Validity

A

Extent to which a measure actually assesses what researchers think it does

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32
Q

Populations

A

Broad groups of people that are of interest to researchers

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33
Q

Sample

A

A subset of population

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34
Q

Correlational Study

A

Investigation looking at relations between variables as they exist naturally in the world

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35
Q

Correlation Coefficient

A

An expression of the strength and direction of a relation between two variables

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36
Q

Experiment

A

A systematic way of manipulating the key factor(s) that investigator thinks causes a particular behavior

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37
Q

Independent Variable

A

The factor being manipulated

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38
Q

Dependent Variable

A

The behavior being observed

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39
Q

Qualitative Reasearch

A

Method that involves gaining in-depth understanding of human behavior and what governs it

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40
Q

Longitudinal Study

A

Longitudinal study research design in which the same individuals are observed or tested repeatedly at different points in their lives

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41
Q

Cross-sectional study

A

Study in which developmental differences are identified by testing people of different ages

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42
Q

Cohort effects

A

Problem with cross-sectional designs in which differences between age groups (cohorts) may result as easily from environmental events as from developmental processes

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43
Q

Sequential design

A

developmental research design based on cross-sectional and longitudinal designs

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44
Q

Meta-analysis

A

a tool that enables researchers to synthesize the results of many studies to estimate relations between variables

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45
Q

Chromosomes

A

threadlike structures in the nuclei of cells that contain genetic material

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46
Q

Autosomes

A

first 22 pairs of chromosomes

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47
Q

Sex Chromosomes

A

23rd pair of chromosomes; these determine the sex of the child

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48
Q

Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)

A

molecule composed of four nucleotide bases that is the biochemical basis of heredity

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49
Q

Gene

A

group of nucleotide bases that provides a specific set of biochemical instructions

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50
Q

Genotype

A

person’s hereditary makeup

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51
Q

Phenotype

A

physical, behavioral, and psychological features that result from the interactions between one’s gene’s and the environment

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52
Q

Alleles

A

variations of genes

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53
Q

Homozygous

A

when the alleles in a pair of chromosomes are the same

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54
Q

Heterozygous

A

when the alleles in a pair of chromosomes differ from each other

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55
Q

Dominant

A

form of an allele whose chemical instructions are followed

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56
Q

Recessive

A

allele whose instructions are ignored in the presence of a dominant allele

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57
Q

Incomplete dominace

A

situation in which one allele does not dominate another completely

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58
Q

Sickle-Cell trait

A

disorder in which individuals show signs of mild anemia only when they are seriously deprived of oxygen; occurs in individuals who have one dominant allele for normal blood cells and one recessive sickle-cell allele

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59
Q

Phenylketonuria (PKU)

A

inherited disorder in which the infant lacks a liver enzyme

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60
Q

Huntington’s Disease

A

progressive and fatal type of dementia caused by dominant alleles

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61
Q

Behavioral Genetics

A

the branch of genetics that studies the inheritance of behavioral and psychological traits

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62
Q

Polygenic Inheritance

A

when phenotypes are the result of the combined activity of many separate genes

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63
Q

Heritability Coefficient

A

a measure (derived from a correlation coefficient) of the extent to which a trait or characteristic is inherited

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64
Q

Niche-Picking

A

process of deliberately seeking environments that are compatible with one’s genetic makeup

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65
Q

Nonshared Environmental Influences

A

forces within a family that make siblings different from one another

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66
Q

Prenatal Development

A

the many changes that turns a fertilized egg into a newborn human

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67
Q

In Vitro Fertilization

A

process by which sperm and an egg are mixed in a petri dish to create a zygote, which is then placed in a woman’s uterus

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68
Q

Eugenics

A

effort to improve the human species by letting only people whose characteristics are valued by society mate and pass along their genes

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69
Q

Zygote

A

fertilized egg

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70
Q

Implantation

A

step in which the zygote burrows into the uterine wall and establishes connections with the woman’s blood vessel

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71
Q

Germ Disc

A

small cluster of cells near the center of the zygote that will eventually develop into a baby

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72
Q

Placenta

A

structure through which nutrients and waste are exchanged between the mother and the developing child

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73
Q

Embryo

A

term given to zygote once it is completely embedded in the uterine wall

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74
Q

Ectoderm

A

outer layer of the embryo, which will become the hair, the outer layer of skin, and the nervous system

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75
Q

Mesoderm

A

middle layer of the embryo, which becomes the muscle, bones, and circulatory system

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76
Q

Endoderm

A

inner layer of the embryo, which becomes the lungs and digestive system

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77
Q

Period of the fetus

A

longest period of prenatal development, extending from the 9th until the 38th week after conception

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78
Q

Cerebral Cortex

A

wrinkled surface of the brain that regulates many functions that are distinctly human

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79
Q

Vernix

A

substance that protects the fetus’s skin during development

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80
Q

Age of Viablility

A

age at which a fetus can survive because most of its bodily system function adequately; typically at 7 months after conception

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81
Q

Spina Bifida

A

disorder in which the embryo’s neural tube does not close properly

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82
Q

Stress

A

physical and psychological responses to threatening or challenging conditions

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83
Q

Teratogen

A

an agent that causes abnormal parental development

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84
Q

Fetal Alcohol Spectrum disorder (FASD)

A

disorder affecting babies whose mothers consumed large amounts of alcohol while they were pregnant

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85
Q

Ultrasound

A

prenatal diagnostic technique that uses sound waves to generate an image of the fetus

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86
Q

Amniocentesis

A

prenatal diagnostic technique that uses a syringe to withdraw a sample of amniotic fluid through the mother’s abdomen

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87
Q

Chorionic Villus Sampling (CVS)

A

prenatal diagnostic technique that involves taking a sample of tissue from the chorion

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88
Q

Fetal Medicine

A

field of medicine concerned with treating prenatal problems before birth

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89
Q

Crowning

A

appearance of the top of the baby’s head during labor

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90
Q

Hypoxia

A

a birth complication in which umbilical blood flow is disrupted and the infant does not receive adequate oxygen

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91
Q

Cesarean section (C-section)

A

Surgical removal of infant from the uterus through an incision made in the mother’s abdomen

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92
Q

Preterm (premature)

A

Babies born before the 36th week after conception

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93
Q

Low birth weight

A

Newborns who weigh less than 2,500 grams (5 pounds)

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94
Q

Very low birth weight

A

Newborns who weigh less than 1,500 grams (3 pounds)

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95
Q

Extremely low birth weight

A

Newborns who weigh less than 1,000 grams (2 pounds)

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96
Q

Infant mortality

A

The number of infants out of 1,000 births who die before their first birthday

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97
Q

Reflexes

A

Unlearned responses triggered by specific stimulation

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98
Q

Alert inactivity

A

State in which a baby is calm with eyes open and attentive; the baby seems to be deliberately inspecting the environment

99
Q

Waking activity

A

State in which a baby’s eyes are open but seem unfocused while the arms or legs move in burst of uncoordinated motion

100
Q

Crying

A

State in which a baby cries vigorously, usually accompanied by agitated but uncoordinated movement

101
Q

Sleeping

A

State in which a baby alternates from being still and breathing regularly to moving gently and breathing irregularly; the eyes are closed throughout

102
Q

Basic cry

A

Cry that starts softly and gradually becomes more intense; often heard when babies are hungry or tired

103
Q

Mad cry

A

More intense version of basic cry

104
Q

Pain cry

A

Cry that begins with a sudden long burst, followed by a long pause and gasping

105
Q

Irregular or rapid-eye-movement (REM) sleep

A

Irregular sleep in which an infant’s eyes dart rapidly beneath the eyelids while the body is quite active

106
Q

Regular (nonREM) sleep

A

Sleep in which heart rate, breathing, and brain activity are steady

107
Q

Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)

A

When a healthy baby dies suddenly for no apparent reason

108
Q

Temperament

A

Consistent style or pattern of behavior

Combination of environmental forces, reaction to the content

109
Q

Malnourished

A

Being small for one’s age because of inadequate nutrition

110
Q

Neuron

A

Basic cellular unit of the brain and nervous system that specializes in receiving and transmitting information

111
Q

Cell body

A

Center of the neuron that keeps the neuron alive

112
Q

Dendrite

A

End of the neuron that receives information; it looks like a tree with many branches

113
Q

Axon

A

Tubelike structure that emerges from the cell body and transmits information to other neurons

114
Q

Terminal buttons

A

Small knots at the end of the axon that release neurotransmitters

115
Q

Neurotransmitters

A

Chemicals released by terminal buttons that allow neurons to communicate with each other

116
Q

Cerebral cortex

A

Wrinkled surface of the brain that regulates many functions that are distinctly human

117
Q

Hemispheres

A

Right and left halves of the cortex

118
Q

Corpus callosum

A

Thick bundle of neurons that connect the two hemispheres

119
Q

Frontal cortex

A

Brain region that regulates personality and goal-directed behavior

120
Q

Neural plate

A

Flat group of cells present in prenatal development that becomes the brain and spinal cord

121
Q

Myelin

A

Fatty sheath that wraps around neurons and enables them to transmit information more rapidly

122
Q

Synaptic pruning

A

Gradual reduction in the number of synapses, beginning in infancy and continuing until early adolescence

123
Q

Electroencephalography

A

the study of brain waves recorded from electrodes that are placed on the sclap

124
Q

Functional magnetic resonance (fMRI)

A

method of studying brain activity by using magnetic fields to track blood flow in the brain

125
Q

Experience-Expectant growth

A

process by which the wiring of the brain is organized by experiences that are common to most humans

126
Q

Experience-Dependent growth

A

process by which an individual’s unique experiences over a lifetime affect brain structures and organization

127
Q

Motor skills

A

coordinated movements of muscles and limbs

128
Q

Locomote

A

ability to move around in the world

129
Q

Fine motor skills

A

motor skills associated with grasping, holding, and manipulating objects

130
Q

Toddling

A

early, unsteady form of walking done by infants

131
Q

Toddlers

A

young children who have just learned to walk

132
Q

Dynamic system theory

A

theory that views motor development as involving many distinct skills that are organized and reorganized over time to meet specific needs

133
Q

Differentiation

A

distinguishing and mastering individual motions

134
Q

Integration

A

linking individual motions into a coherent, coordinated whole

135
Q

Perception

A

processes by which the brain receives, selects, modifies, and organizes incoming nerve impulses that are result of physical stimulation

136
Q

Visual acuity

A

smallest pattern that one can distinguish reliably

137
Q

Cones

A

specialized neurons in the back of the eye that sense color

138
Q

Visual Cliff

A

glass-covered platform that appears to have a “shallow”, and a “deep” side; used to study infants’ depth perception

139
Q

Kinetic cues

A

cues to depth perception in which motion is used to estimate depth

140
Q

Visual expansion

A

kinetic cue to depth perception that is based on the fact that an object fills an ever-greater proportion of the retina as it moves closer

141
Q

Motion Parallax

A

kinetic cue to depth perception based on the fact that nearby moving objects move across our visual field faster than do distant objects

142
Q

Retinal disparity

A

way of inferring depth based on differences in the retinal images in the left and right eyes

143
Q

Pictorial cues

A

cues to depth perception that are used to convey depth in drawings and paintings

144
Q

Linear Perspective

A

a cue to depth perception based on the fact that parallel lines come together at a single point in the distance

145
Q

Texture Gradient

A

Perceptual cue to depth based on the fact that the texture of objects changes from coarse and distinct for nearby objects to finer and less distinct for distinct objects

146
Q

Intersensory redundancy

A

infants’ sensory systems are attuned to information presented simultaneously to different sensory modes

147
Q

Theory of mind

A

ideas about connections between thoughts, beliefs,intentions, and behavior that create an intuitive understanding of the link between mind and behaviour

148
Q

Scheme

A

according to Piaget, a mental structure that organizes information and regulates behavior.

149
Q

Assimilation

A

According to Piaget, taking in information that is compatible with what one already knows

150
Q

Accommodation

A

According to Piaget, changing existing knowledge based on new knowledge

151
Q

Equilibration

A

According to Piaget, a process by which children reorganize their schemes to return to a state of equilibrium when disequilibrium occurs

152
Q

Sensorimotor period

A

First of Piaget’s four stages of cognitive development, which lasts from birth to approximately 2 years

153
Q

Object permanence

A

Understanding, acquired in infancy, that objects exist independently of oneself

154
Q

Egocentrism

A

Difficulty in seeing in the world from another’s point of view; typical of children in the preoperational period

155
Q

Animism

A

Crediting inanimate objects with life and lifelike properties such as feelings

156
Q

Centration

A

According to Piaget, narrowly focused type of thought characteristic of preoperational children

157
Q

Core knowledge hypothesis

A

Infants are born with rudimentary knowledge of the world, which is elaborated based on experiences

158
Q

Teleological explanation

A

Children’s belief that living things and parts of living things exist for a purpose

159
Q

Essentialism

A

Children’s belief that all living things have an essence that can’t be seen but gives a living thing it’s identity

160
Q

Mental hardware

A

Mental and neural structures that are built in and that allow the mind to operate

161
Q

Mental software

A

Mental “programs” that are the basis for performing particular tasks

162
Q

Attention

A

Processes that determine which information will be processed further by an individual

163
Q

Orienting response

A

An individual views a strong or unfamiliar stimulus, and changes in heart rate and brain-wave activity occur

164
Q

Habituation

A

Becoming unresponsive to stimulus that is presented repeatedly

165
Q

Classical conditioning

A

A form of learning that involves paring a neutral stimulus and a response originally produced by another stimulus

166
Q

Operant conditioning

A

View of learning, proposed by B.F. Skinner, that emphasize reward and punishment

167
Q

Autobiographical memory

A

Memories of the significant events and experiences of one’s own life

168
Q

One-to-one principle

A

Counting principle that states that there must be one and only one number name for each object counted

169
Q

Stable-order principle

A

Counting principle that states that number names must always be counted in the same order

170
Q

Cardinality principle

A

Counting principle that the last number name denotes the number of objects being counted

171
Q

Intersubjectivity

A

Mutual, shared understanding among participants in an activity

172
Q

Guided participation

A

Children’s involvement in structured activities with others who are more skilled, typically producing cognitive growth

173
Q

Zone of proximal development

A

Difference between what children can do with assistance an what they can do alone

174
Q

Scaffolding

A

A style in which teachers gauge the amount of assistance they offer to match the learner’s needs

175
Q

Private speech

A

A child’s comments that are not intended for others but designed instead to help regulate the child’s own behavior

176
Q

Phonemes

A

Unique sounds used to create words; the basic building blocks of language

177
Q

Infant-directed speech

A

Speech that adults use with infants that is slow and has exaggerated changes in pitch and volume; it is thought to aid language acquisition

178
Q

Cooing

A

Early vowel-like sounds that babies produce

179
Q

Babbling

A

Speechlike sounds that consist of vowel-consonant combinations; common at about 6 months

180
Q

Fast mapping

A

A child’s connections between words and referents that are made so quickly that he or she cannot consider all possible meanings of the word

181
Q

Underextension

A

When children define words more narrowly than adults do

182
Q

Overextension

A

When children define words more broadly than adults do

183
Q

Phonological memory

A

Ability to remember speech sounds briefly; an important skill in acquiring vocabulary

184
Q

Referential style

A

Language-learning style of children whose vocabularies are dominated by names of objects, persons, or actions

185
Q

Expressive style

A

Language-learning style of children whose vocabularies include many social phrases that are used like one word.

186
Q

Telegraphic speech

A

Speech used by young children that contains only the words necessary to convey a message

187
Q

Grammatical morphemes

A

Words or endings of words that make a sentence grammatical

188
Q

Overregularization

A

Grammatical usage that results from applying rules to words that are exceptions to the rule

189
Q

Hope

A

According to Erikson, an openness to new experience tempered by wariness that occurs when trust and mistrust are in balance

190
Q

Will

A

According to Erikson, a young child’s understanding that he or she can act on the world intentionally; this occurs when autonomy, shame, and doubt are in balance

191
Q

Purpose

A

According to Erikson, balance between Individual initiative and willingness to cooperate with others

192
Q

Evolutionary psychology

A

Theoretical view that many human behaviors represents successful adaptations to the environment

193
Q

Attachment

A

Enduring socioemotional relationship between infants and their caregivers

194
Q

Secure attachment

A

Relationship in which infants have come to trust and depend on their mothers

195
Q

Avoidant attachment

A

Relationship in which infants turn away from their mothers when they are reunited following a brief separation

196
Q

Resistant attachment

A

Relationship in which, after a brief separation, infants want to be held but are difficult to console

197
Q

Disorganized (disoriented) attachment

A

Relationship in which infants don’t seem to understand what’s happening when they are separated and later reunited with their mothers

198
Q

Internal working model

A

Infant’s understanding of how responsive and dependable the mother is; thought to influence close relationships throughout the child’s life

199
Q

Basic emotions

A

Emotions experienced by humankind and that consist of three elements: a subjective feeling, a physiological change, and overt behavior

200
Q

Social smiles

A

Smile that infants produce when they see a human face

201
Q

Stranger wariness

A

First distinct signs of fear that emerge around 6 months of age when infants become wary in the presence of unfamiliar adults

202
Q

Social referencing

A

Behavior in which infants in unfamiliar or ambiguous environments look at an adult for cues to help them interpret the situation

203
Q

Parallel play

A

When children play alone but are aware of and interested in what another child is doing

204
Q

Simple social play

A

Play that begins at about 15 to 18 months; toddlers engage in similar activities as well as talk and smile at each other

205
Q

Cooperative play

A

Play that is organized around a theme, with each child taking on a different role; begins at about 2 years of age

206
Q

Enabling actions

A

Individuals’ actions and remarks that tend to support other and sustain the interaction

207
Q

Constricting actions

A

Interaction in which one partner tries to emerge as the victor by threatening or contradicting the other

208
Q

Prosocial behavior

A

Any behavior that benefits another person

209
Q

Altruism

A

Prosocial behavior such as helping sharing in which the individual does not benefit directly from his or her behavior

210
Q

Empathy

A

Experiencing another person’s feelings

211
Q

Social role

A

Set of cultural guidelines about how one should behave, especially with other people

212
Q

Gender stereotypes

A

Beliefs and images about males and females that are not necessarily true

213
Q

Relational aggression

A

Aggression used to hurt others by understanding their social relationships

214
Q

Gender identity

A

Sense of oneself as male or female

215
Q

Gender labeling

A

Young children’s understanding that they are either boys or girls and naming themselves accordingly

216
Q

Gender stability

A

Understanding in preschool children that boys become men and girls become women

217
Q

Gender constancy

A

Understanding that maleness and femaleness do not change over situations or personal wishes

218
Q

Gender-schema theory

A

Theory that states children want to learn more about an activity only after first deciding whether it is masculine or feminine

219
Q

Mental operations

A

Cognitive actions that can be performed on objects or ideas

220
Q

Deductive reasoning

A

Drawing conclusions from facts; characteristic of formal-operational thought

221
Q

Working memory

A

Type of memory in which a small number if items can be stored briefly

222
Q

Long-term memory

A

Permanent storehouse for memories that has unlimited capacity

223
Q

Organization

A

As applied to children’s memory, a strategy in which information to be remembered is structured so that related information is placed together

224
Q

Elaboration

A

Memory strategy in which information is embellished to make it more memorable

225
Q

Metamemory

A

Person’s informal understanding of memory; includes the ability to diagnose memory problems accurately and to monitor the effectiveness of memory strategies

226
Q

Metacognitive knowledge

A

A person’s knowledge and awareness of cognitive processes

227
Q

Cognitive self-regulation

A

Skill at identifying goals, selecting effective strategies, and accurate monitoring; a characteristic of successful students

228
Q

Psychometricians

A

Psychologists who specialize in measuring psychological traits such as intelligence and personality

229
Q

Emotional intelligence

A

Ability to use one’s own and others’ emotions effectively for solving problems and living happily

230
Q

Analytic ability

A

In Sternberg’s theory of intelligence, the ability to analyze problems and generate different solutions

231
Q

Creative ability

A

In Sternberg’s theory of intelligence, the ability to deal adaptively with novel situations and problems

232
Q

Practical ability

A

In Sternberg’s theory of intelligence, the ability to know which problem solutions are likely to work

233
Q

Mental age (ma)

A

In intelligence testing, a measure of children’s performance corresponding to the chronological age of those whose performance equals the child’s

234
Q

Intelligence quotient (IQ)

A

Mathematical representation of how a person scores on an intelligence test in relation I how other people of the same age score

235
Q

Culture-fair intelligence tests

A

Intelligence tests devised using items common to many cultures

236
Q

Stereotype threat

A

An evoked fear of being judged in accordance with a negative stereotype about a group to which you belong

237
Q

Convergent thinking

A

Using information to arrive at one standard and correct answer

238
Q

Divergent thinking

A

Thinking in novel and unusual directions

239
Q

Intellectual disability

A

Substantially below average intelligence and problems adapting to an environment that emerge before the age of 18

240
Q

Learning disability

A

When a child with normal intelligence has difficulty mastering at least one academic subject

241
Q

Word recognition

A

The process of identifying a unique pattern of letters

242
Q

Comprehension

A

The process of extracting meaning from a sequence of words

243
Q

Phonological awareness

A

The ability to hear the distinctive sounds of letters

244
Q

Knowledge-telling strategy

A

Writing down information as it is retrieved from memory, a common practice for young writers

245
Q

Knowledge-transforming strategy

A

Deciding what information to include and how best to organize it to convey a point

246
Q

Inductive reasoning

A

Reasoning from detailed facts to general principle

Psychology 200 (3 decks)

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