Liberalism: the state, society, economy and human nature, and differing views and tensions (L2.1/2) Flashcards
What is liberalism?
Liberalism is a family of political ideologies that promote liberty and rights guaranteed by a constitutional state based on the consent of those ruled by that state.
How did liberalism seek to achieve human freedon and liberty?
Liberalism sought to achieve this by creating a constitutional form of government where the law applied equally to all and guaranteed their rights.
What is classical liberalism?
A strand of liberal thought which believes individual freedom is best achieved with a minimal state.
> Negative freedom
> Free-market capitalism
> Limited government based on consent
> Minimal taxation; non-interventionalist
> Egoistical individualism
What is modern liberalism?
Modern liberalism argues freedom cannot be simply defined as “being left alone”, yet instead focuses on positive freedom; the freedom to develop through access to education, healthcare and basic necessities.
> Supports an enabling state
> Welfare system
> Keynesian economics
> Developmental individualism
What do classical liberals think about human nature?
Human nature is fundamentally good; people are peaceable and get along with each other
What do classical liberals think about rationality?
People are rational and capable of understanding the world around them and their relationships with other people
> Rationality means people will look after themselves and their families first, but also recognise the need to get along with others
What do modern liberals think about human nature?
Human nature only develops fully in a broader social context
> More altruistic view of human nature, believing in a society where resources support the disadvantaged
What do modern liberals think about rationalism?
Retains belief in human rationality but sees it as something that must be developed through education
> Human potential is only fully realised if people grow up with enough to eat, somewhere safe to live, good health, and proper education
What is rationalism?
The belief that humans are rational creatures, capable of reason and logic.
What do classical and modern liberals agree on in terms of human nature?
- Rationality
- Moral equality
- Capacity for freedom
- Autonomy
What type of individualism do classical liberals believe in?
Egoisticial individualism
What type of individualism do modern liberals believe in?
Developmental individualism
What is individualism?
The primacy of the individual in society over any group.
> Each individual is unique and has the ability to develop as such
> Society exists to serve individuals; individual freedom and autonomy should be protected
What is egoistical individualism?
This view suggests that people are largely self-focused, rational beings who best pursue their goals when left alone.
> It emphasises self-reliance, with people being responsible for their own welfare without expecting help from others or the state.
What is developmental individualism?
This view recognises that individual potential can only be fully realised with adequate resources like education, healthcare, and social support.
> Modern liberals argue that true freedom requires more than just being left alone—it requires positive conditions that enable personal growth and flourishing.
What does classical liberalism think about the state?
The state is based on a social contract and consent of the governed
> Should be a limited, minimal government/state
What do classical liberals think the state’s role should be?
- The state is necessary to avoid disorder but potentially “evil” as it can remove individual liberty
- State should uphold the rule of law, where the law applies equally to everyone
- Not democratic: early classical liberals feared the “tyranny of the majority”
What type of (specific) view do classical liberals have of the state?
Mechanistic view of the state: the state is something people construct to serve their rationally decided interests
What is a ‘social contract’?
Theoretical agreement amongst the members of society to establish a state and political authority.
What is a limited government?
Governmental powers should be restricted to those agreed in the social contract.
> Defined and constrained by laws; constitutional; individual liberties are protected.
What does modern liberalism think about the state, in general (what contract, and what specific view?)
Based on a different form of social contract (Rawls’s “veil of ignorance”)
> Still sees the state as mechanistic (rationally constructed)
What do modern liberals think about the state, in connection with the economy and welfare?
Enabling state: provides education, healthcare, housing, and other essentials
> Greater role in regulating the economy and creating a fair, just society
> Support for the welfare state to ensure everyone’s basic needs are met
> State has role in redistributing some wealth to promote greater equality
What do classical and modern liberals agree on in terms of the state?
- Consent-based legitimacy
- Constitutional limitations
- Protection of rights
- Rule of law
- Mechanistic view
- Separation from religion
What does classical liberalism think about society?
Society would exist naturally and peacefully in the “state of nature”
> Society should be driven by individual self-interest and the freedom it brings
> Limited concern with society as a whole; focus is on individuals getting along with each other
What is the ‘state of nature’?
The ‘state of nature’ is a theoretical concept used to describe human society before or without formal government and laws.
What do classical liberals think about tolerance and rights in society?
- Tolerance of different beliefs and ways of living (particularly emphasised by Mill)
- Rights exist prior to the state; state’s purpose is to protect them
What is tolerance?
Conditional acceptance of or non-interference with beliefs, actions or practices that one might personally consider wrong but still ‘tolerable’, such that they should not be prohibited or constrained
What does modern liberalism think about society?
Society should be characterised by social justice (fairness)
> Society has a responsibility to ensure all individuals can develop their potential
> Diversity welcomed and tolerance extended beyond what classical liberals advocated
What is social justice/equality?
The belief that individuals are of equal value and that they should be treated impartially and fairly by society.
What is foundational equality?
Belief that all human beings are born equal, regardless of who they are
> No person deserves special privileges or rights.
What is formal equality?
Equality before the law
> Law applies equally to everyone
> Nobody receives special legal privileges or disadvantages
> Everybody has the same legal rights and protections
What is equality of opportunity?
Principle that everyone should have the same chance to succeed in life based on their talents and effoerts, rather than their background.
What is a meritocracy?
A meritocracy is a system where advancement and success are based on individual ability, talent, effort and achievement rather than on factors such as wealth, social class or inherited privilege.
> Positions are filled by those deemed most talented and qualified through competition.
What type of equality of opportunity do classical liberals propagate?
Non-discriminatory
> Removal of legal barriers that prevent individuals from fairly competing
> No discrimination based on characteristics like race or gender
> Meritocratic system
What type of equality of opportunity do modern liberals propagate?
Substantive equality of opportunity
> Recognition that formal rights are insufficient without resources to exercise them
> Provision of education, healthcare and basic welfare to all
> Active steps to counteract disadvantages
> Anti-discrimination law
What is a liberal democracy?
A democracy that balances the will of the people, as shown through free and fair elections, with limited government and a respect for civil liberties.
What do classical liberals think about liberal democracy?
Sceptical
> Feared the ‘tyranny of the majority’
> Worried the propertyless masses would vote to redistribute wealth
What is the ‘tyranny of the majority’?
Concept referring to the potential danger in democratic systems where the majority can use their voting power to oppress minority groups or individuals
What do modern liberals think about liberal democracy?
Much more supportive
> Believe education and greater social justice make democracy work better
> Support a ‘liberal democracy’ that balances majority rule with protection of individual rights
What does classical liberalism think about the economy?
Free market (laissez-faire) economic policy
> The capitalist economy is self-regulating if left alone
> The “hidden hand of the market” ensures goods people need are produced
> Economic crises should not occur if the market is truly free
What do classical liberals think about taxation, and the individual?
Taxation should be low and not progressive
Economic freedom is linked to human freedom
> People should decide how to spend their money; the state should not tax and spend on their behalf
> Division of labour increases efficiency and wealth for all
What does modern liberalism think about the economy?
Support for Keynesian methods to ensure full employment
> State has a role in regulating the economy
> Capitalist system prone to crises that require state intervention
What are Keynesian methods in the economy?
Economic theory supported by modern liberals challenging classical laissez-faire approaches
> Markets are not always self-correcting; government intervention is necessary to maintain full employment
> Governments should increase spending in economic downturns, creating demand, stimulating production and reducing unemployment
> During upturns, the government should reduce spending and raise taxes to prevent inflation
What is free market capitalism?
Private ownership of production, minimal state intervention
> Prices, production and distribution determined by market forces of supply and demand
What do modern liberals think about taxation and social justice in the economy?
Some income redistribution required for social justice
> Higher taxation justified to provide public services and benefits
> Freedom requires being free from hunger, unemployment, and homelessness
What type of freedom do classical liberals believe in?
Negative freedom
What type of freedom do modern liberals believe in?
Positive freedom
What is negative freedom?
Freedom comes from being left alone to do your own thing
> The state will not interfere in what you are doing
Harm principle (Mill): individuals should be free to do anything except harm others
What is positive freedom?
Freedom requires resources and capabilities, not just absence of interference
> Education enhances freedom by expanding life choices
> Good health allows independence and freedom in other ways
> Freedom from poverty required for meaningful choice
What are some examples of negative freedoms?
Freedom of property, religion, conscience, speech/expression, assembly, association
What are some examples of positive freedoms?
Free universal education
Access to medical treatment
Protection from poverty and homelessness
RIght to employment
Access to housing
What is the link between modern liberal’s support for positive freedoms, and their aversion to the free market?
The free market does not guarantee human freedom without these supports
What do classical liberals believe in terms of foundational and formal equality, as well as equality of opportunity/outcome?
- Foundational equality: all human beings are born equal with the same natural rights
- Formal equality: the law applies equally to all and does not offer special advantages
- Limited view of equality of opportunity: once legal obstacles are removed, there is equal opportunity
- Rejection of equality of outcome as incompatible with the free market
What are the key tensions between the strands of liberalism, in terms of the role of the state, the nature of freedom, the view on individualism and the economic approach?
Role of the state: minimal vs. enabling
Nature of freedom: negative vs. positive
View of individualism: egoistical vs. developmental
Economic approach: laissez-faire vs. regulated (Keynesianism)
What are the key tensions between the strands of liberalism, in terms of type of equality, distribution of resources and democracy?
Equality: formal vs. formal AND substantive
Distribution of resources: market-based vs. some redistribution
Democracy: skepticism vs. support
What are the key tensions between the strands in terms of property rights?
Property rights: absolute vs. limited by social needs
What is a minimal state?
Highly limited approach to state power and functions
> Government protects rights, maintains law and order, defends threats via the military, enforces contracts and rights, and provides a stable currency.
What is an enabling state?
Expansive view of government’s proper role
> Provides essential services that enable individuals to develop their potential
> Uses fiscal and monetary policy (Keynesian economics) to manage the economy and maintain full employment (regulates the market, redistributes wealth)
What is distributive justice?
Fair allocation of benefits and burdens within a society, considering factors like needs, contributions, and the broader societal good, aiming for equitable distribution of resources, opportunities and goods
Why did classical liberalism emerge?
Eariy liberals who believed that individual freedom would be best achieved with a state playing a minimal role.
Why did modern liberalism emerge?
Emerged as a reaction against free-market capitalism, believing this had led too many individuals not being free. Freedom could no longer simply be defined as ‘being left alone’.
