Liberalism

Question 1

Liberalism

Answer 1

Most people agree that liberalism is the most important and influential ideology in the world today, almost 2/3 of the states across the globe may be classed as liberal democracies – a seven fold increase since 1945. For many academics liberalism represents the end of history and the inevitable destination for advanced societies.

Question 2

The origins of liberalism

Answer 2

The roots of liberalism can be found in the Protestant reformation which started as a result of Martin Luther in 1517. These religious Protestants argued that Christianity should assume a more individualistic character. However it was the enlightenment that applied these religious ideas o the political sphere. The enlightenment was defined by a belief in reason rather than faith – promoting relentless debate on previously unquestioned issues.
On radical idea that emerged from the enlightenment is that each individual is someone with free will, the best judge of their own interests and that their life should be shaped by their actions and decisions. John Locke is regarded as the father of liberalism and he began to question the relationship between individuals and governments – seeking to define how and why individuals should defer to their governments.
This was revolutionary. Until then the government was monarchical under the divine right of kings. The enlightenment destroyed these medieval ideas. For Locke human beings had the power of logic, calculation and deduction. For Locke he wanted a political system based upon mechanistic theory (mankind is rational and therefore capable of devising a state that reflects mankind’s needs).

Question 3

Liberalism and human nature

Answer 3

Liberalism denies the old medieval notion of man (that man is fundamentally flawed and imperfect). The medieval notion was linked to religion and the idea of original sin. Liberalism is more optimistic arguing human nature has capacity to bring about progress and the ability to forge happiness. At the heart of this optimistic view is that as rational creatures humans are able to calculate answers to all sorts of problems.
For liberalism human problems are challenges awaiting reasoned solutions. Individuals are naturally self-seeking and self-serving – hence liberalisms association with egotistical individualism (belief that human beings are naturally drawn to the advancement of their own selfish interests and pursuit of their own interests, but this doesn’t led to conflict). Yet mankind’s rationality leads to peace, harmony and mutual understanding.

Question 4

Liberalism and society

Answer 4

Locke cites the existence of natural society, with natural laws and therefore natural rights (including the right to life, liberty and property), all of which preceded the state. Liberals place importance on the individual and believe the purpose of any civilised society is to facilitate individualism. For this reason liberals believe that the default setting of any society is a focus upon individual freedom.
The right to property is important is particularly important, as it is seen as the tangible expression of an individual within society. Later liberals (like Mill) also see property as the prism through which individuals develop their potential, providing an opportunity for men and women to nurture their taste and judgement.

Question 5

Liberalism and economy

Answer 5

Liberalism is devoted to private property and this informs its approach to the economy, meaning liberals support capitalism. Liberalism is associated with private enterprise and private ownership of the economy. Liberalism’s endorsement of capitalism is strongly linked to its positive view of human nature. Adam Smith a liberal economist in the 18th century stated if obstacles to free trade were removed, the invisible hand of market forces would guide traders towards success – resulting in that wealth would trickle down to everyone.

Question 6

Liberalism and the state - the origins of the liberal state

Answer 6

the state of nature is a term used to refer to what life might have been like before laws, formal rules and governments existed. Liberalism although accepted an optimistic view of human nature, still accepts there would have been clashes between individuals. Therefore a mechanism state was required to arbitrate effectively between the competing claims of rational individuals. Therefore although the state of nature is tolerable, a formalised state is preferable to liberals.

Question 7

Liberalism and the state - objectives of the liberal state

Answer 7

Rejection of the traditional state – a liberal state rejects the monarchical or absolutist rule where power is concentrated in the hands of one person. They also reject any claims of the divine right to govern.
Government by consent – the state is only legitimate if the government has consent of the governed. Locke said the government should always be the servant, not master of the people. This is linked to government by consent. Individuals accept the states authority and restrictions but are promised something in return, if the contract if violated by the state the citizens do not have to obey the states laws.
Promotion of natural rights – liberals assume individuals had natural rights under the state of nature – therefore it would be irrational to abandon both natural and individualism to any state. The state must promote natural rights.
Promotion of tolerance – the state should tolerate all actions and opinions unless they were show to violate the harm principle (as long as they do not harm the freedom of others).
Meritocracy – political power should only be exercised by those who have shown they are worthy of it. Therefore aristocracy (old noble families in medieval kingdoms) had no place in a meritocratic liberal state according to Locke.
Equality of opportunity – all individuals are born equal, have equal rights and are of equal value – often referred to as foundational equality. The liberal state must give all the equal opportunity to achieve their potential.
Justice – the state should embody justice and treat individuals fairly – without regard for their identity. Individuals must be able to assume a just outcome from any complaints and satisfactory resolutions to any grievances with other individuals.

Question 8

Liberalism and the state - structure and method of the liberal state

Answer 8

Constitutional/limited government – the contract between government and governed should be cemented by a forma constitution. This constitution should only be made after extensive discussion and consensus is reached.
Constitutional government may be described as limited government, with a liberal constitution imposing two key limitations. First governments must govern according to pre-arranged rules. Second a liberal constitution is designed to prevent government from eroding the natural rights of their citizens.
Fragmented government – fragmented government reflects liberalisms belief in the rationality of mankind; if individuals are generally reasonable and inclined to self determination, it seems logical to empower as many as possible in the exercise of state functions. In the US constitution (influenced by Locke) there are a series of checks and balances to stop power being concentrated.
Formal equality – due to the belief in foundational equality the state should strive for formal equality – where all individuals have the same legal and political rights. It places significant emphasis on the doctrine of the rule of law. No one should be outside of the law and on one should be above it either.

Question 9

Key thinker John Locke

Answer 9

Human nature – optimistic view of human nature and his belief that it was guided by rationalism meant that his vision the state of nature would not be one people would leave at any cost. State of nature would be underpinned by natural laws, liberties and right. Individuals living under formal laws were never consistently worse off than the state of nature.
The state – he disputed the idea that the state had been created by a celestial power involving monarchs had the divine right to govern. The true state he argued would be created by mankind to serve mankind’s interests. State would have to improve upon an already tolerably situation if people were to consent to being governed and it must resolve disputes between individuals more effectively. Locke’s ideal state would reflect the principle that citizens had voluntarily consented to accepted the states ruling in return for improving their theory. State embodies principle of limited government. Executive and legislative branches of state would be separate.

Question 10

Early classical liberalism

Answer 10

Classical liberalism is somewhat ambiguous with a diverse range of thinkers. There is early classical liberalism and later classical liberalism. Early classical liberalism (late 17th and 18th century) represents that attempt, to relate the ideology’s core beliefs to the political and economic climate of the time. It has four distinctive features, revolutionary period, negative liberty, minimal state and laissez faire capitalism.

Question 11

Revolutionary period

Answer 11

Locke’s argument for government by consent is one of the most important core principles of liberalism. In the context of the 17th and 18th centuries Lockean ideas required argument and sometimes revolutionary actions. In rejecting the divine rights of kings and monarchical power, Locke’s philosophy became associated with England’s glorious revolution of 1688 and the end of concentrated political power. Locke’s blueprint for representative government also inspired both the American revolt against the British crown and subsequent American constitution of 1787 – both of which reflect his insistence upon natural rights, separation of powers and government by consent.
The core liberal idea o rationalism was firmly accepted. Neither was the central idea that society should be geared to maximum individual freedom. Wollstonecraft argued the treatment of women in this period was a general affront to reason and a particular affront to the individual liberty of half the adult population – as women were conceived as emotional creatures and kept in a state of listless inactivity and stupid acquiescence. Her argument that men and women needed education to release their innate powers of reasons was seen as radical by most.

Question 12

Negative liberty

Answer 12

Early classical liberal were conscious that individual liberty, a natural right, was vital to self-determination and reliance as well as being the condition of government by consent. Wollstonecraft also tied to relate such ideas to individual liberty of women. However early classical liberals were also aware that liberty was a vague term and needed clarification if individualism were to be protected.
The definition that emerged from classical liberal thinking would be later termed negative liberty, one which saw freedom as the absence of restraint. Individuals should therefore assume that they were naturally free until something or someone put a brake on their actions. For early classical liberals, this definition would have consequences for both the size of the state and the merging science of economics.

Question 13

Minimal state

Answer 13

The notion of negative freedom defined the answer to another key question facing early classical liberals, just how much governing should the new constitution state undertake. Given that liberty was now seen as the absence of restraint, the answer became obvious; governments should not just be limited in how they act but what they do. The limited state should co-exist with the minimal state. The notion of the minimal state also served to strengthen classical liberalisms faith in the dispersal of political power, a state with assorted checks and balances, where state power could not be centralised and therefore would not be bold.

Question 14

Laissez faire capitalism

Answer 14

Negative liberty and a belief in minimal government led classical liberalism into the realms of economic activity. It became linked to the issues of how the state should respond to the emergence of capitalism in the 18th century.
Adam Smith’s ‘The Wealth of Nations (1776) became one of the most important expressions of classical liberalism and, arguably the original economics textbook. Smith argued capitalism had limitless capacity to enrich society and individuals in it. The wealth acquired by individuals would accordingly trickle down to the rest of the population – just as long as the state took a laissez faire approach.
Smith therefore advocated the end of tariffs and duties, which has protected domestic producers and the spread of free trade between nation states and their commercial classes. In the UK these ideas were radical in 1776 but became orthodox in the century that followed.

Question 15

Key thinker Mary Wollstonecraft

Answer 15

Human nature – primary claim was that the enlightenments optimistic view of human nature and the assumption that it was guided by reason, should apply to all human beings.
The state – argued both society and state implied that women were not rational and they were thus denied individual freedom and formal equality. She supported republican government and formal equality involving a constitutional defence of individual rights, not just men.
Society – she said the effective denial of liberty to an entire gender left society vulnerable to doctrines that threatened the whole spirit of the enlightenment. She wanted formal education for everyone.

Question 16

Later classical liberalism

Answer 16

This refers to the period of the early to mid-nineteenth century. By the 1800s countries like Britain and the USA looked very different to the societies surveyed by Locke and the founding fathers. They had become more industrialised and individuals had a growing class consciousness. As a result there was a growing interest in concepts like democracy and socialism. Classical liberals faced a challenge if their core ideas were to remain relevant.

Question 17

Jeremy Bentham

Answer 17

He was known as the father of utilitarian philosophy, developed a supposedly scientific alternative to natural rights theory, based on the idea that each individual would seek to maximise their own utility by maximising personal pleasure and minimising personal pain. Yet, he acknowledged that in an industrialised society this could produce more clashes between individuals than early classical liberals envisaged.
As a result Bentham suggested that the liberal state would need to be more proactive using the formula of the greatest happiness of the greatest number to inform legislation and policy. In the process he provided liberalisms with one of its earliest justifications for democracy, as governments were more likely to follow the greatest happiness of the greatest number if they were elected by and accountable to the greatest number of voters.

Question 18

Samuel Smiles

Answer 18

He feared liberalism was under threat from socialism and its case for more state provision. He argued self-reliance was still perfectly feasible for most individuals. He acknowledged industrialised societies made it harder for individuals to be self reliant. But he argued if self help were usurped by state help, human beings would remain stunted.

Question 19

Herbert Spencer

Answer 19

He acknowledged the importance of self help and echoed Smiles contempt for more state intervention. But he questioned Smiles belief that all individuals could rise to the challenge of self-help. He believed in social Darwinism. He claimed minimal state and negative freedom would lead to the survival of the fittest and the gradual elimination of those unable to enjoy the benefits of individualism.

Question 20

Key thinker John Stuart Mill

Answer 20

Human Nature – Mills harm principle (notion that an individual’s actions should always be tolerated unless it harms others). Mill divided human actions into self regarding and other regarding. Self regarding did not impinge on the freedom of others in society and therefore should be tolerated. Other regarding clearly did harm the freedom of others in society and therefore should not be tolerated by a liberal state. He believed in developmental individualism – what individuals could become rather than what they had become.
The state – he believed in negative freedom and minimal state intervention. State should not tolerate others regarding human actions. He wanted representative democracy as he was concerned that government by consent would be compromised and had the potential to create tyranny of the majority.
Society – believed in universal education as this would promote developmental individualism. The uneducated shouldn’t get the vote until they became educated and a university education would receive more than one vote.
The economy – similar to Adam Smith laissez faire capitalism and he believed the wealth would trickle down the classes.

Question 21

Liberal democracy a contradiction in terms - yes

Answer 21

• Democracy tends to be guided by majorities. It therefore threatens some individuals with the tyrant of the majority
• classical liberalism favoured a limited electorate, so as to safeguard property rights
• Stuart Mill thought votes should be given only to those with appropriate formal education
• Liberals seek to mitigate democracy’s effects via assorted constitutional devices
• Modern liberal flirt with supranational bodies like the EU where there is a democratic deficit

Question 22

Liberal democracy a contradiction in terms - no

Answer 22

• Democracy tends to complements individualism allowing individuals to shape their lives via the ballot box
• Democracy complements government by consent
• Democracy is optimistic about human nature, it presupposes an intelligent electorate capable of rational decisions
• Democracy helps avoid the concentration of power
• John Stuart Mill thought democracy would have an educative effect upon voters and thus abet developmental individualism

Question 23

Modern liberalism

Answer 23

This is a form of liberalism in the late 19th century. Its distinguishing features were positive liberty, enlarged and enabling state, constitutional reform/ liberal democracy and social liberalism.

Question 24

Key thinker Thomas Hill Green

Answer 24

Human Nature – the nature of modern economics and society meant individuals were increasingly subject to socio-economic forces beyond their control. Such forces made it impossible for affected individuals to seek self-determination and self- realisation. He argued social justice, as well as legal justice was required if individuals were to fulfil their potential. The approach of helping others help themselves became a concept known as positive freedom.
The state – the state should foster and protect the social, political and economic environments in which individuals will have the best chance of acting according to their conscience. But other enthusiastic state intervention could close down opportunities for conscientious action thereby stifling the moral development of the individual. The state should intervene only where there was a clear, proven and strong tendency of a liberty to enslave the individual, this is an enabling state.
Society – the nature o society means individuals were increasingly subject to socio-economic forces beyond their control. Collectivism – away from individual approach towards a community approach, need to help everyone to help society flourish.
The economy – the nature of modern economics means individuals were increasingly subject to socio-economic forces beyond their control. Shift away from laissez faire economy, away from the work of Adam Smith’s move towards Keynes.

Question 25

Modern liberalism - positive liberty/ social justice

Answer 25

The new liberals reached radical conclusions about liberty, individualism and society. They argued that the nature of modern economics and society meant individuals were subject to forces beyond their control. Such forces would make it impossible to seek self determination and realisation, even though they may not have caused the socio-economic problems restricting their liberty. As a result modern liberals argued that social justice was now required if individuals were to fulfil their potential.
As a result liberty was not seen merely as the absence of restraint (negative freedom) but now as cooperative – enabling and empowering individuals. This approach helping others help themselves would allow certain individuals to act in a way that otherwise would have been impossible if they were left alone. This is the concept of positive freedom.

Question 26

Modern liberalism - enlarged and enabling state

Answer 26

In contrast to the classical belief that the state should be minimal, modern liberals state that only a larger state could repel the new, socio-economic threats to freedom and individualism. Modern liberals justified substantial extension of the state in the name of individual liberty: more laws, state spending, taxation and bureaucracy. This brand linked to collectivism.
Having embraced collectivism, modern liberals faced the charge that it has betrayed the core liberal principles and blurred the lines between socialism and liberalism. Later liberals denied this but claimed an enlarged state simply guaranteed equality of opportunity necessary to enable individual freedom. Rawls insisted that although the enlarged state would require some individuals to sacrifice more of their earnings in taxation those same individuals could still be persuaded that this was a necessary thing. That being so, the enabling state would be consistent with the liberal principle of government by consent.
Rawls also pointed out that while modern liberalism wanted to improve the lot of society’s least fortunate, it remained indifferent to inequality of outcome. For modern liberals this was the inevitable side effect of individual freedom and the key difference with socialism. The priority was to aid the social and economic condition of the most deprived and enable them to exploit their individual potential. As long as that occurred the gap between the rich and the poor was a secondary concern.

Question 27

Modern liberalism - reform/ liberal democracy

Answer 27

Modern liberals have been associated with ongoing constitutional reform to secure the principle of government by consent. In the UK, modern liberal’s demands for reform have included electoral reform, codified constitution and devolution of power.
But the most important interest in constitutional reform has been its support for liberal democracy, in other words completing the link between core liberal values and universal adult suffrage. However modern liberals fear direct democracy, referendums and initiatives threaten the tyranny of the majority. They have also seemed willing to dilute representative democracy in order to protect liberal values, for example their support for the HRA 1998 which hands power to an unelected judiciary.

Question 28

Modern liberalism - social liberalism

Answer 28

Modern liberals attempt to update classical liberalism stress on tolerance –especially of minorities. This has become known as social liberalism. Mid 20th century onwards liberals called for greater racial and sexual toleration. Given their acceptance of positive liberty and an enlarged state, they argued for solutions to their problems in legislation, state regulation and sometimes positive discrimination (affirmative action).
From the 1960s onwards, modern liberalism thus became associated with initiatives like President Kennedy’s Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. In the UK liberals gave strong backing to the Race Relations Act 1976 and Sex Discrimination Act 1975 which criminalised negative forms of discrimination. Friedan cited Mill’ harm principle stating the reforms were perfectly in line with liberal tradition. The enlarged state too was in line, Friedan argues with the protection and advancement of natural rights.

Question 29

Key thinker John Rawls

Answer 29

Human Nature – individuals required not just formal equality under the law and constitution but also greater social and economic equality, called foundational equality. When forced under such conditions, human nature being rational and empathetic would lead individuals to choose a society where poorest members faced significantly better than in present society. He noted that though most individuals would choose to improve the poorest they would still want considerable scope for individual liberty and self fulfilment and therefore significant inequalities of outcome.
The state – enabling state with an extensive public spending and progressive taxation could make sure all lives were fulfilled. Larger (enabling) state was consistent with liberalisms historic stress upon government by consent. Poorest should be improved by the state.
Society – wanted a fairer society where inequalities were reduced. He did not argue that the gap between the richest and poorest should be narrowed – ensuring his philosophy was still distant from socialism.

Question 30

Key thinker Betty Friedan

Answer 30

Human nature –individuals should be free to seek control over their own lives and full realisation of their potential. Like many she argued gender was a serious hindrance to all individuals who were female. She believed in the equality of opportunity.
The state – she rejected the radical feminist argument that the state was patriarchal and forever under the control of the dominant gender. She disdained violence or illegally as a means of pursuing change, arguing significant progress was possible via legal equality, brought about by the procedures of a liberal state.
Society – argued it was liberal attitudes in society rather than human nature that condemned most women to underachievement. These attitudes were nurtured and transmitted by society’s cultural channels – schools, religion, media, literature, theatre and cinema. These channels of cultural conditioning left women convinced their life was determined by human nature not their own rationality and enterprise. She said society not the state was patriarchal.

Question 31

Neo liberalism

Answer 31

By the end of the 20th century, neo liberalism was widely recognised as a branch of the ideology. It seems to update the classical principles within a 20th and 21st century setting, aiming to reapply the ideas of Adam Smith and Thomas Jefferson to modern globalised societies. It also offers a critique of modern liberalism, accusing it of betraying the individual and being a sell out to both socialism and conservatism.
Neo liberals have re-advertised the merits of negative freedom and a minimal state, calling for politicians to roll back the frontiers of the state. They have demanded a reduction in public standing, often facilitated by the privatisation of public services and much less state regulation of the economy. This would allow for lower rates of taxation and a gradual replacement of the dependency culture with an ethos of enterprising individualism.

Question 32

Does modern liberalism abandon the principles of classical liberalism - yes

Answer 32

• Classical liberalism prioritised the interests of property owners. Modern liberalism has championed representative democracy.
• Classical liberalism championed a minimal state, modern liberal’s champion an enlarged enabling state.
• Classical liberalism favoured laissez faire capitalism. Modern liberals favour Keynesian capitalism where the state seeks to manage market forces
• Classical liberalism defined liberty as individuals being left alone (negative freedom). Modern liberals think individuals are not free unless they are actively enable via interference from others (positive freedom).
• Classical liberals saw tax as theft and sought to restrict it. Modern liberals see it as the key method of implementing positive freedom.

Question 33

Does modern liberalism abandon the principles of classical liberalism - no

Answer 33

• Both classical and modern liberalism have an optimistic view of human potential
• Modern and classical believe in rationalism and insist upon tolerance of minorities
• Individualism is the goal of society and politics according to both classical and modern; they just differ on how to achieve it
• Both oppose state ownership of the economy and believe in capitalism
• Both classical and modern liberalism believe in constitutional (limited) state and government by consent

Question 34

Can liberalism be reconciled with conservatism - yes

Answer 34

• Liberals and conservatives support private property and capitalism
• Liberals and conservatives see inequality of outcome as a sign of liberty
• Liberals and conservatives support gradual reform and reject revolution
• Modern liberals and conservatives deny the inevitability of class conflict
• Neo-liberals and new right conservatives reject Keynesian economics and champion a more laissez faire economy

Question 35

Can liberalism be reconciled with conservatism - no

Answer 35

• Liberals have an optimistic view of human nature, conservatives are sceptical
• Liberals see individuals as potentially autonomous, conservatives see individuals as communal
• Liberals see rationalism as central to human behaviour, conservatives stress habit, emotion and instinct
• Liberals prioritise individual liberation, conservatives stress order and restraint
• Liberals believe in free market capitalism, traditional conservatives are more sceptical and protectionist

Question 36

Tensions within liberalism - human nature

Answer 36

all liberals believe that individuals are rational, intelligent and keen to prioritise individual happiness. However early liberals like Locke and neo-liberals like Hayek believe that individuals are bless with qualities while Mill and modern liberals think qualities are potential features of human nature to be developed by enlightened liberal authorities. Modern liberals endorse Mills concept of individuality – one that refers to what individuals could become, once enabled to fulfil their potential.

Question 37

Tensions within liberalism - society

Answer 37

classical liberals believe society predates the state, while all liberals see society as a collection of diverse and potentially autonomous individuals seeking self-determination. Modern liberals like Rawls believed industrialised and urban societies are those where individuals are less autonomous and therefore require state support to ensure positive liberty. Neo-liberals see society as one where individuals have been hampered by positive liberty and the dependency culture must be corrected by a radical reduction of the state

Question 38

Tensions within liberalism - state

Answer 38

all liberals believe the state should function according to prearranged riles and procedures, within power fragmented and authority subject to the consent of the governed. However, liberals vary on the extent of state authority. Classical liberals like negative liberty and state intervention should be minimal and individuals left unchecked. Modern liberals in accordance with positive liberty believe state intervention should be much more extensive so as to enable individuals to reach their potential. Liberals have varied over how democratic the state should be. Modern liberals are satisfied that representative democracy enhances constitutional government whereas early classical liberals saw democracy as a threat to property rights.

Question 39

Tensions within liberalism - economy

Answer 39

Locke’s assertion that property is a natural right all liberals believe that the economy be based on private property. However classical liberals and neo-liberals support Adam Smith’s laissez faire attitude. Modern liberals have more sympathy for the view of Keynes that capitalism requires regular state management to get full employment. Modern liberal’s belief in managed capitalism also explains its support for supranational organisations like the EU, which many neo-liberals see an obstacle to global free trade.