Liberalism

Question 1

Name the key thinkers and their principle?

Answer 1

John Locke
—————
•Social Contract Theory - society, state, and government are based on voluntary agreements with each other.
• limited government - government should be limited and must have the consent from the people

Mary Wollstonecraft
—————————-
• Reason - women are rational, independent beings capable of reason
• Formal Equality - To be free women should enjoy full civil liberties and be allowed to have a career.

John Stuart Mill
———————
• Harm Principle we should be free to do anything except harm other individuals.
• Tolerance just because a view is popular doesn’t make it correct.

John Rawls
—————
• Theory of Justice - Society must be just and guarantee each citizen a good quality of life that’s worth living.
• Veil of ignorance - Hypothetical scenario where individuals agree on the type of society they want without knowing what their position in that society will be.

Betty Freidan
——————
• Legal equality - Women are as capable as men and oppressive laws and social views must be overturned.
• Equal opportunity - Women are being held back from achieving their potential because of the limited number of jobs that are acceptable for women.

Question 2

Origins of liberalisms
——————————
What did the breakdown of the feudalist system into a capability society mean for people?
What is the reformation?
What did the Reformation challenge people to do?

Answer 2

Middle class landowners now believed that people didn’t need to remain in a position based on their birth and that if they worked hard (meritocracy) they could advance themself in society.

People were encouraged to come up with new political arguments to justify private property inequality and keeping profits leading to some coming up with arguments about the role and size of the state arguing there should be limits on how much authority the state + government has in someone’s life mainly through taxation.

The Reformation was the start of Protestantism and the split of the western church into Protestantism the Roman Catholic Church.

The Reformation contributed to liberalism as it encourage people to challenge traditional views from religious hierarchy and instead believe that individuals are unique and in control of their own destiny. Violence that followed the Reformation encourage liberals to advocate for greater tolerance of different religious beliefs.

Question 3

Origins of liberalism
—————————
What is the enlightenment?
What happened in the 18th century?
What did the findings of the 18th century challenge?
During the 18th century, how did people view the states power to rule?

Answer 3

A period where people started to believe in science and reason rather than faith and tradition.

Newton developed his law of gravity meaning scientific experiments were an accepted way of testing knowledge and coming up with reasonable conclusions based of scientific evidence this saw the increase of *logic reason and critical thinking.

This challenged the divine rights of kings, to rule, given by God which also *challenged the feudal system and hierarchy of society.

There was a change in people’s belief that the states power to rule over the people was not something that should be given from God but instead should be agreed by the people this is called a *social contract. They believed all humans were capable of *rational thought and encouraged the idea that a better society could be created this challenged the feudal hierarchy.

Question 4

What was John Locke’s view during the enlightenment?

Answer 4

He began to question the hierarchical system and the relationship between the state and people.

His theory of social contract between the government and the state argues that the states power must be come from agreements from the people.

He was a supporter of a limited government were the state plays a smaller role in peoples lives and this role must be agreed by the people.

Question 5

Strands of liberalism : classical liberals
—————————————————-
What do individual prioritise?
What is the states function?
What do all individuals have in common?
How should the gov function?
How far should the state + others actions go?
What are the benefits of there was no welfare state?
What type of people thrive in society?
What are people capable of?
Should individuals be tolerant?

Answer 5

•CL prioritise individual freedom and that human nature is fixed this is egotistical individualism. (self interest + self reliance)
•The state is created to serve us this is the mechanistic theory.
•Individual are all equal and our behaviour is determined by how we interact with one another.
•The gov should be limited and should have consent from the people this is the social contract theory this theory is also supported by John Lock.
•actions of the state and others should be accepted unless they bring harm to others this is Mills harm principle.
•if society didn’t have the welfare state it would encourage competition, self reliance benefiting the individual as inequality would push people to improve themselves.
•Autonomous and self determined individuals will thrive
•Individuals are rational and capable of logical thought.
•Individuals are tolerant.

Question 6

Strands of Liberalism: modern liberals
—————————————————-
What allows individuals to be free?
Should the gov be limited?
What restricts individuals opportunity + liberty
What type of democracy is used?
What type of characteristics are individuals?
What should the gov be?
Is individuals nature fixed?
What do ML promote?

Answer 6

•Individuals cannot be free unless they are enabled by the state and given positive freedoms.
•The gov must be limited but not as restricted as CL advocate.
•Laissez Faire capitalism restricts individuals opportunity and liberty therefore Keynesianism.
•advocate representative democracy
•Individuals are rational and tolerant
•gov should be limited and be done through consent.
•humans are capable of improving their life therefore their nature is not fixed this is developmental individualism.
•promote social justice but stop short of advocating socialism.

Question 7

Core beliefs

Question 8

Individualism
——————-
What is individualism?
What are CL view on individualism?
What are ML views on individualism?

Answer 8

The individuals interests are more important than the collective interest. Individualism is present in society and It promotes human rights that apply equally to everyone, and should not be infringed by others or the state.

Believe in egotistical individualism, this places importance of self interest and self reliance (individual freedom) as we are rational individuals as we serve our own interests not the collective minimising the importance of society. our human nature is fixed as we have everything we need from birth to flourish and it’s up to us to make use of it. CL reject the idea that society can constrain an individual as it’s up to them to make the best out of their life.

Believe in developmental individualism this is the view that individual freedom is the desire to create a society which each person can grow and flourish. this supports state intervention in order to help the disadvantaged in society. Mill was an advocate of greater education this promoted developmental individualism, focusing on what individuals could become, rather than what they had become at that stage of their life. If this goes against the view, that human nature is fixed. According to Mill this would protect the liberal values of tolerance, reason and individualism.

Question 9

Tolerance
—————
What is it?
What type of right is tolerance?
What issues on tolerance have liberals accepted?

Answer 9

A willingness to respect, values, customs and beliefs with which one disagrees

It’s a natural right that liberals believe everyone should have which should not be taken away against the will of the individual.

Traditionally views on tolerance were for different religious beliefs, but it has been extended on issues like sexual matters and supporting measures to put same-sex relationships on the same legal footing as heterosexual relationships because these are private lifestyle choices.

Question 10

CL views on Tolerance
——————————-
Who is capable of tolerance ?
What is the state of nature?
What does Lock argue about the state of nature?
What is the disadvantage of the state of perfect freedom that lock argues?
Due to this what did Lock believe?

Answer 10

Rational individuals

A hypothetical example of what life might have been like before laws and governments

Lock argues that in the state of nature people able to exercise their natural rights

In a state of perfect freedom there may be clashes when people are trying to pursue self interest for example to individuals may both claim entitlement to some area of land but the state of nature lacks authority to enforce peoples rights so they couldn’t be made use of.

He supported a mechanistic theory as it would prevent clashes and decide between them. Therefore, classical liberal see the state as a protector of nature.

Question 11

ML views on tolerance
——————————-
What should tolerance be extended to?
What happens if majority of society is tolerant ?
What group have ML tried to extend tolerance to?
What thinker argues for greater tolerance + which individuals are held back?
What did this key thinker support?
What stopped women, reaching their potential?
What sources pushed these views into society and what was the impact on women?
What type of feminist was Friedan and what what her thoughts on the state and feminists?
How did Friedan believe change was going to happen?
What is positive freedom?
What kind of positive freedom look like for women?
What has the US done in terms of positive discrimination for women?
What positive discrimination action has the UK taken?
Do classical liberals agree with legislation?

Answer 11

Should be extended to intolerant acts, unless it directly threatens the security of others in society.

Those who hold intolerant beliefs will eventually change to become more tolerant of others.

And modern liberals have attempted to expand the principle of tolerance outlined by classical liberals to minorities. This is known as social liberalism.

Betty Friedan 1921-2006 argues for greater tolerance of different genders and races. Individuals in western societies are held back based on inborn factors, like their gender, race and ethnicity, sexual orientation or disability.

Friedan and argued that the barriers for a women to achieving her full potential was not because of society, but instead of a liberal attitude.

Culture, channels, schools, religious organisations, the media, mainstream literature, theatre cinema which are portrayed at the time of her writing Mystique in 1963 traditional gender roles for women she argues these channels, culturally conditioned people leaving women convinced that their life is determined by human nature, rather than the own rational abilities and enterprise.

Friedan was a liberal feminist. She used the liberal state to create change for women rather than resorting to violence she viewed the state is the institution which could allow the constant improvement of peoples lives rejecting radical feminist thoughts that the state was patriarchal bound to be under the control of the dominant gender, which is man.

ML proposed an enlarged enabling state to achieve positive freedoms for individuals. Friedan argued the solution was further legislation on discrimination, state regulation and sometimes even positive discrimination.

Positive discrimination is treating someone who has been disadvantaged eg gender differently in order to produce positive outcomes.

Creating all women shortlist for jobs on company boards to improve the number of women in those positions as they bring unique perspectives and qualities to the position. this creates equality of opportunity for women. 

The US has been in the formation of Affirmative Action Programs positive discrimination. Kennedy is equal employment opportunity, commission in the US required. Those managing projects financed by the state to take affirmative action in actively hiring more members of minority ethnic groups that were previously discriminated against.

In the UK modern liberals have been strong supporters of the race relations act 1976, and sex discrimination act 1975, that both criminalised negative discrimination against ethnic minorities and women and lead to equality act 2010 that repealed both laws in favour of Cleaver legislation to protect minorities. this shows that the state has a positive impact on upholding individualism.

CL disagree as it goes against foundational equality. They strongly disagree over the need for state to provide this protection. Positive discrimination. Also goes against meritocracy

Question 12

Freedom
————
Who should exercise freedom?
What should the government not do?
How is Human behaviour perceived?How does this apply to society?

Answer 12

Freedom must be exercised under the law and Government should not prevent people from doing what they choose unless their actions threaten others ability to do the same for themselves. This was a mechanistic view of human behaviour that saw people as driven by rational self interest when applied to society at large, it produced the idea of the greatest happiness for the greatest number, meaning the interest of minor minority groups are overridden by the majority.

Mechanistic society- (This is the idea that the state was created by amounts of people and acting their interest.)

Question 13

CL on Freedom
———————-
What are CL thoughts on Human Nature?
What are CL views on personal freedom?
What key thinker supports personal freedom?
What theory do they promote?
What do individuals do to be successful?
What principle does CL support?
Who popularised the harm principle?
What would the harm principle prevent?
What did Mills work ‘On Liberty’ outline?
How does Mill explain the harm principle in his work?
What 2 categories did mill separate people into in relation to the harm principle?
By tolerating others actions would would be the benefit according to mill?
What do CL disagree with in relation to the state?
Difference between CL & ML:
What is the states role and what concept does this support does it threaten liberty what key thinker supported this idea and what’s the quote?

Answer 13

CL reject a pessimistic view of human nature as they believe all humans are capable of rational thought.

CL believe people should be given as much personal freedom as possible
Locks mechanistic theory of government suggests individuals have equal moral worth and should be treated with equal moral worth by the state. Showing society is simply a collection of self interested individuals.

Humans are rational therefore will create harmony by respecting the freedom and liberty of others. This allows them to create the best path for success This part of the social contract theory is formulated by John Lock.

CL support the harm principle this idea is popularised by John Stuart Mill in on liberty 1859, that human actions should be as free as possible as long as it does not bring home direct to another person.

It would prevent physical violence and there would be no limits on freedom of expression has this limit would prevent innovative thinking.

It outlined his views on negative liberty that freedom could only be the absence of restraint (from the state).

Mill explains his harm principle that actions of individuals should always be tolerant by the state or individuals unless those actions would cause harm to others.This is the case even if we don’t agree with individuals actions we should respect their life choices.

Millie divided individuals actions into self regarding and other regarding. self regarding actions, like religious worship, did not infringe upon the rights of others and so should be tolerated. Other regarding actions like violence did harm the freedoms of others and therefore should not be tolerated by liberal state.

Mill argued it was incredibly important to tolerate the opinions of others, especially when they disagreed with your own as it was the only way knew ideas would emerge and ensure that bad ideas were exposed in rational debates and therefore could be stopped.

CL believe in a minimalist state which acts merely as an enforcer of contracts and social order CL therefore support concept of negative freedoms (absence of external restraint) they believe the biggest threat to liberty is the state.John Lock said that nobody can give more power than a man has himself. This concept of negative freedom is a key reason that the second amendment was as vital in the US constitution.

Question 14

ML view on freedom
——————————
What type of liberty do they believe in?
What is the core liberal belief and which thinker supported and what did he want to extended it to?
How could we extend this belief financially and what are the benefits?
What is the veil of ignorance and what does it justify?
Are ML optimistic about Human Nature and what type of individualism do they support?
Do you ML support the harm principle?
Difference between CL & ML:
What type of freedom do liberal support?
What do they argue for negative freedoms?
What did Rawls suggest about the natural state?

Answer 14

Positive liberty that individuals are entitled to protections for their freedoms by the state, this positive freedom with allow individuals to achieve their potential, which would have been impossible. If they had been left alone this is negative freedom individuals must be enabled to achieve this potential and freedom from socio-economic, achieving social justice.

Rawls 1921-2002 theory of justice, reinstated, the core liberal belief to achieve foundational equality Rawls extended this to individuals require formal equality under the law, but also greater social and economic equality.

This would create a just society where all lives could be rich and fulfilled to achieve this roles argued a significant read distribution of wealth would be required to an enabling state with far-reaching public spending and progressive taxation.

The veil of ignorance is where everyone would choose to create a just society as they were unaware of the position they would end up in society society this justifies positive rights, protections and freedom for individuals from the state.

ML a similarly optimistic about human nature, however, they believe in developmental individualism (egotistical) this means supporting others rather than respecting their own rights in order for society to progress.

ML support the harm principle, however, they differ on what constitutes as harm eg not limited to violence should include psychological and emotional harm therefore ML support limits on speech and actions that cause harm to others. Even if it’s indirectly this is why ML forefront of supporting hate speech legislation which criminalises hateful speech is based on characteristics like sexuality or race.

ML support positive freedoms believe without state intervention real freedom would only be enjoyed by privelaged in society.

Negative freedom will merely amount to ‘freedom to starve’

Rawls argued that in a natural state humans would opt for a world of social justice and greater equality. Therefore, modern liberals advocate for positive freedoms supported by enabling state. For example, supporting the introduction of the human rights act 1998 and the equality act 2010.

Question 15

The state
————-
What are liberals belief on the state?
Do liberals believe the state is necessary?
What views do liberals have on human nature?
Should there be checks and balances on government power?
What do liberals call the state?
What are examples of methods liberals have used to limit government?
What are features of an ideal liberal gov?
What should liberal laws take into account that CL would argue?
Any state of nature, what is bound to happen?
Should the state be organised by rational, thought or traditional ideas?
What type of gobs should replace the monarchy and arbitrary gov?
What principles should the government be based on?
How can we limit, government?
What is the name of the French philosopher who came up with the principle of separation of powers?

Answer 15

Liberals believe the state is a threat to individual freedom and liberty Therefore there must be a limited gov.

Liberals believe the state is necessary and without it we would unsafe lawless conditions.

Liberals believe human nature is corruptible by power. Therefore, those in power needs strict limits or they will seek to increase and abuse their power.

They refer to the state as necessary evil

constitutionalism, government by consent, checks and balances, bicameralism, separation of the powers.

State should promote tolerance, it should be democratic, it should promote meritocracy.
🔼
laws, established by the state should be based on liberal conception of natural law, and that people should respect each other’s life, liberty and property his is classical not modern.

In a state of nature that is bound to be conflicts between individuals and groups, the state should reduce this.

The state should be organised based on rational ideas of government, rather than traditional principles.

Therefore constitutional government should replace arbitrary governments and traditional monarchy.

Government should be based on the principle of limited governance. It should also be based on the principle of government by consent. This can be done through constitutional agreements and by governments that are constantly accountable to the people. The state should operate the rule of law by all citizens in try foundational equality, and it should tolerate and protect interest of minorities.

The best way of limiting the power of the government is to divide power between different branches of the government. This is the principle of separation of the powers, as explained by French philosopher, baron de Montesquieu, 1689- 1755

Question 16

CL view on the state
——————————
What should the state not interfere
with?
When it comes to the state what divides liberals and what do CL believe?
What principles were included in a classical liberal state associated with John Stuart Mill?
What is minimal state intervention and what does this allow for citizens?
What key thing extended idea of the minimal state and what did they argue?
By undermining women what factor of liberal origin does this affect?
What type of economy does CL believe in?
—————————————————-
Background Knowledge of the economy
—————————————————-
What did the free market allow for?
What did the invisible hand help do?
Which which prime minister had emerged the concept of classical free-market economics and how?
How should the minimal state be restricted, and should the restrictions apply to the economy?
—————————————————-
CL view on the economy
—————————————————-
What do CL want to end?
What do CL advocate and what are the benefits?
What time period we’re liberal economic beliefs being accepted?

Answer 16

The state should not interfere with the workings of the free-market.

There is division within liberalism over the role of the state classical liberals argued that the state should act as a ‘night watchman’ and protect individual freedom through Law.

•The role of state should be limited to protecting individuals and groups from each other’s negative actions
• state should protect property rights
• States primary role is to protect the nation from external threat
• State should not interfere with economic activity.
•the gov of the state should be based on representative democracy rather than direct popular democracy as this could lead to tyranny of the majority (mass people support discrimination against minorities).

CL emphasise minimal state intervention this means individuals should be left alone to pursue their own path with an absence of restraint allowing them freedom.

Mary Wollstonecraft expanded this argument, arguing by restraining female individuals societies, we’re limiting intelligence, wisdom and morality, she added that ‘such arrangements are not conditions, where reason and progress may prosper’.

The denial of liberty to an entire gender could lead to an undermining of the spirit of the enlightenment which liberals place great faith in.

CL believe in a non-interventionist state and in laissez faire economic policy.

The free market system shown in Adams Smith ‘The Wealth of Nations allowed the market to regulate its self encouraging competition.

He argued that the invisible hand of market forces had a capacity to enrich both the individual and the society.

The concept of classical free-market economics emerged in the governments of Margaret Thatcher and Ronald Regan in the 1980s, they advocated a rolling back of the state which they wanted to achieve to policies such as privatisation + taxation

The minimal state is lockean (A philosopher who supports the beliefs of John Locke.) in nature and should be restricted to maintain social order enforce contracts and provide defence. However its intervention in economic life should be limited.

CL Endorse the end of tariffs and duties on imports that had protected domestic producers of goods.

advocate for greater free trade between nations to allow the trickle-down effect to be more widespread
CL see taxation as theft and want to limit it.

these views were being accepted throughout the 19 century

Question 17

ML view on the state
——————————
What type of state do ML want and which freedom does this link with?
What do ML argue a limited state does to people?
Why does the state need to intervene and how can they intervene?
What liberalism movements did ML add to the role of the state in the late 19 century?
What did John Rawls argue about foundational equality in relation to society?
How could greater equality be distributed in society?
What did modern liberal TH Green argue argue about equality?
Which other thinker links with TH Greens idea?
How can the state promote positive freedom
Due to positive freedom what is socialism progressively becoming?

Answer 17

ML support an enabling state linked to their belief in positive freedom.

ML argued that the limited state leaves capitalism free to create huge inequalities, resulting in many people being unable to achieve their personal goals and potential as they being held back by poverty and debt.

Therefore, the state needs to intervene to ensure that all individuals have equality of opportunity and positive freedom, and this may require the creation of a wealthy state and intervention in the economy to protect the vulnerable from exploitation.

Since T.H Greens New liberalism movement these roles have been added to the state:
•state should promote equality of opportunity through education
•state should organise welfare to help those who are unemployed,disabled,elderly giving rise to Beveridges welfare state in 1940s
•ML accept the state should promote social justice this is based on John Rawls.modern liberals prefer greater intervention this is Berlins positive freedom.

John Rawls argued that foundational equality of CL is not enough to secure, adjust society and that society and economic equality were also desirable If an individuals life is to be rich and fulfilled.

Rawls argued that this form equality could only be provided by a significant redistribution of wealth, via an enabling state with extensive public spending and progressive taxation

TH Green believed that, an individual cannot be truly free if they didn’t have the tools to prosper and access their full potential

This concept can be associated with John Stewart Mills, developmental individualism in large, enabling state

To achieve positive freedom, ML advocate for an enlarged, enabling state. John Rawls justified, a expansion of the role of the state to achieve individual liberty, a large state producing more laws, spending more, having higher taxation, and more State bureaucracy would be the only way to achieve social justice.

Due to these policies, this branch of liberalism became more closely associated with collectivism.

Question 18

ML view on the state
——————————
During which events did ML create far reaching policy’s?
Who criticised the modern liberals on its collectivist policies and why?
Which thinker disagreed with redrich von Hayek?
How did John Rawls argue equality of opportunity would be done in society?
What did Rawls ‘theory of Justice’ argue?
In this book what were the philosophical conditions?
—————————————————-
ML view on the Economy
—————————————————
What are modern, the polls views on the state of the economy?
What type of economics does ML support,what are the views on the free market and should state intervention be used and why?
What role do ML argue the state should have in an economic recession and name an example of a recession in the uk?

Answer 18

ML responding to events like the great depression in America in the 1920s and 1930s, and the creation of postwar World War II created far-reaching policies that went past CL would have accepted as the size and the role of the state in order to help tackle social and economic issues Many argue ML advocate for more collectivist policies, for example, higher taxation to benefit the disadvantage in society.

Fredrich von Hayek a neoliberal argued, increased state intervention and collectivist policies was too far beyond the principles of CL and blurred the distinctions between CL and socialism.

Rawls disagreed with this arguing that the only way to achieve the equality of opportunity which was necessary for individual freedom was through an enlarged state.

Rawls argued to facilitate policies to create equality of opportunity, methods by progressive taxation was needed with those who, and most money pay the highest taxes as those who would be paying more, could be convinced that this was a justified necessary action that was inherently good and argued that an enlarged state did not break the principle of government by consent, but instead held it.

In his theory of justice, Rawls argued that redistribution of wealth was not surrendering to socialism Hayek suggested. To show this, he created several philosophical conditions.

The original position- individuals must construct a society from scratch that they thought was the better than the one they currently live in. One of the main focuses of this position would be to identify how wealth and power should be distributed.

The veil of ignorance - individuals would have no preconceptions about the sort of people they would be in the new society they had created they could be any race, gender, age, disabled, rich, or poor.
—————————————————
ML believe that the state should be larger and it’s intervention in the economy, much more significant

They support Keynesian economics arguing that the self-regulating free market is a myth and that government intervention can ensure that market economies deliver sustainable growth with low in employment

In times economic recession the state has an important role in stimulating the economy higher government spending and reduced taxes. Eg 2020, the governments response to the recession caused by the pandemic

Question 19

What is Rationalism
—————————-
How did the enlightenment period shape human reason?
What were liberals influenced by in the 18th/19th century to shape human reason?
By now having faith in reason what’s the benefit to society?
How did John Lock describe individuals when their born?
Who causes conflict + How do liberals advocate to stop conflict?
What were liberals thoughts on war?
What international treaties did the liberals support in the early 20th century
Why do liberals support the EU?

Answer 19

Individuals should be free to exercise their own judgement about their own interests without being pressured from external sources like the state or church leaders. Individuals will make mistakes but it’s better to take responsibility than taking orders from above.opinions and actions should be based on knowledge and reason.

Liberals were encouraged by the development in scientific learning in the 18th/19th century liberating people from blind faith in established authority, tradition and superstition.

Faith in reason links to a progressive society as personal development of the individual promotes wider societal advancement.

John Lock believes individuals are born as a blank slate and we gain knowledge based on our experiences.

Liberals accept that competition between individuals, groups and nations will produce conflict. However, the advocate recent debate and discussion to resolve disputes.

Liberal view war as a last resort which should be avoided.

In the 20th century liberals were in the forefront of campaigns in support of the league nations, which today is the United Nations to bring countries together to discuss their disputes

Liberals support the EU as surrendering Some of there national sovereignty member states can benefit by associating with each other, eg access to a large trading area.

Question 20

CL view on Rationalism
———————————
Do CL believe individuals are rational?
What type of contract do individuals form with the state?
What does Locke argue individuals move from?
What is a social contract and who creates government?
What is the mechanistic theory and how does it differ from conservatism?
What thinker argued education is important and how does education link to human nature?
How did education impact early liberals views?
Who created Utilitarianism and explain the theory?
What formula to Bantham argued the state should use?
In order to use this formula, what did Bentham argue needed to be justified?

Answer 20

CL believe individuals are rational

They form a social contract with the state

Locke argued that individuals move from a state of nature towards a social contract with rights and duties on both sides

The purpose of the social contract is to uphold personal freedom. The government is created by the people and can be replaced if it fails to maintain liberty.

Mechanistic theory shows our behaviour is determined by the interactions between individuals and therefore is opposite of the Conservative view that society is an organism in which the state evolves over time.

Locke argued education majority of an individual is formed by their education. As a result, liberals take a optimistic view of human nature, believing an increase in education means rational individuals have the potential to learn and grow this brings about progress and change.

Early liberals took an egotistical view on individualism that all humans wanted to fulfil their own self interest, and pursue their own happiness, and this doesn’t lead to conflict.

Jeremy Bentham created an alternative to natural rights theory, arguing that everyone would seek to maximise their own utility by maximising, personal pleasure and minimising personal pain

Bentham argued the formula. The state should use is ‘the greatest happiness of the greatest number’ to form policy and legislation.

Bentham justified democracy, as the principal was more likely to be achieved, if representatives were elected, and therefore accountable to the greatest number of voters.

Question 21

ML on Rationalism
—————————
Do ML agree with CL on individuals pleasure?
Which ML thinker supported greater education and what did he argue?
What did Mill think greater education would promote?
Do ML agree that humans are rational?
What philosophical conditions did Rawls create?
What did Rawls argue human nature is like and give an example?
How could we achieve a fairer society?
Did Rawls agree that ML we’re moving towards socialism?
Why is ML not socialism?
How does freedom link with inequality of outcome according to Rawls?
Do ML consider helping the poor?
What was Rawls views on the poorest and richest in society?
Should the gap between rich and poor be narrowed.

Answer 21

ML disagree with CL and instead argued that we are capable of higher and lower pleasures instead as we are rational we will strive for the higher pleasures that enable us to progress instead of the greatest good for the greatest number.

Mill advocated for greater education wanting to promote developmental individualism, focusing on where individuals could become, rather than what they had become at that stage in their life.

According to Mill this would protect liberal values of tolerance, reason and individualism.

ML agree humans are rational but also empathetic

In his ‘Theory of Justice’ Rawls created philosophical conditions eg

The original position - individuals must construct a society from scratch what I thought was better than the one they currently live in one of the main focus of this position would be identify how wealth and power should be distributed.

Veil of ignorance - individuals would have no preconceptions about the sort of people they would be in this new society they had created they could be any race, gender, age, disabled, rich, or poor.

Rawls argued, human nature is in intrinsically empathetic this means individuals would choose a society were the poorest people members did significantly better than the poorest members of their own society.Therefore this fairer society would be the one individuals would choose to live in.

ML argue to achieve a fairer society with less inequality we need an enlarged state, higher taxation, wealth distribution, they agree with CL that gov should be run by consent for a fairer society.

Rawls rejected the idea ML we’re moving towards socialism?

Branches of socialism argue for equality of outcome rather than opportunity.

Rawls I acknowledge that inequality of outcome was an inevitable when individuals are allowed to access their freedom.

Most individuals would choose to improve the lives of the poorest.

However there would still be an imbalance between the most and least well of in society and lots of ways to secure individual, liberty and self-fulfilment, despite the state improving the lives of the poorest.

The gap between the richest and poorest should not necessarily be narrowed.

Question 22

Equality and social justice
————————————-
What is the core liberal value that allows society to be fairer?
Are liberal accepting of different people reaching diff outcomes?
what belief is traditional liberalism based on and what’s it’s definition?

Answer 22

Liberals emphasise equality of opportunity. This idea is that each person should have the same chance to fall and rise in society

Liberals accept different outcomes because people have different abilities and potential. They should be free to reach that potential which promotes meritocracy.

A traditional liberalism belief is Foundational equality this means Individuals should enjoy the same legal and political rights in society insured by equality before the law, an equal voting rights in free and fair elections.

Question 23

CL on equality and social Justice
———————————————
do CL believe in foundational equality?
what word did Early CL believe were vague and ambiguous and what did they change this word to?
What is the meaning of negative liberty link to the state of nature?
Is limiting an individuals destiny/potential limiting their freedom?
What do CL not support when the disadvantaged is not helped with there freedom?
how do you CL think people in society should be rewarded?
what do CL believe is a benefit of social inequality and what does it promote?
Who is William Gladstone and what did he do?
what century did liberals not extend same rights to women as men?
what CL thinker argued for same rights to women as men and what rights were women entitled to?

Answer 23

CL believe in foundational equality

early classical liberals thought the word liberty was vague and ambiguous therefore clarified that understanding into negative liberty.

negative liberty sees freedom as the absence of restraint. Individuals are all naturally free in the state of nature. Therefore, the only thing limiting their freedoms are placed on them by the state.

Any infringement on individuals attempting to achieve their destiny, would be limiting their freedom.
This can be seen in classical liberal views on discrimination as it was something which CL did not think should impact individuals freedom.

However argue the state should not help those who are disadvantaged which is positive liberty.

CL believed that individuals with different talents should be reported differently.

CL believe Social inequality is beneficial for society because it gives people an incentive to work hard and make most of their abilities promoting meritocracy.

William Gladstone is a British liberal PM he introduced competitive examinations for entry to the civil service in 1875.

Until the 20th century liberals did not extend same rights to women as men

Mary Wallstonecraft 1759 to 1797 argued women were no less rational beings than men, so we’re entitled to the same rights to pursue a career and to all that own property when married something the law prohibited at the time.

Question 24

ML view on equality and social justice ————————————

Answer 24

ML support for civil rights for women and minority groups. For example, US President, Barack Obama supported the right of transgender pupils to use bathrooms of their choice at school.

Question 25

What is liberal democracy
————————————
Why are democracies in the West called liberal democracys?
What do both CL ML believe?

Answer 25

It combines the rule by the people with a focus on individual rights and liberty addressing the threat posed by majoritarianism that the minority is underrepresented.

Both CL and ML have a strong belief in constitutionalism.

Question 26

CL view on Liberal democracy’s
——————————————-
Why do CL believe we need the state?what is negative freedom?
How does freedom link to state of nature?
How do CL see discrimination?
What is a minimal state?
By clearing the meaning of negative liberty what impact did this have?
Due to the belief in negative liberty what is the state referred as by CL?
What does night watchman mean?
What areas to early classical liberals believe the state should be limited to?
What famous quote did Thomas Jefferson say about liberalism?
What does the quote suggest?
Why were CL concerns over the expansion of rights?

Answer 26

CL believe we need the state to protect negative freedoms.

Negative freedom is the absence of restraint

Individuals are naturally free in the state of nature the only limit to their freedom is placed on them by the state any infringement to an individuals destiny is a limit to their freedom.

Discrimination is something CL did not think should impact individuals freedom however they believe the state should not help those who are disadvantaged as this would be positive freedom.

By clearing the meaning of negative liberty allowed CL to understand how much influence the state should have in a persons life.

A belief in negative liberty led to the liberal belief in the state as a nightwatchman.

Night watchman means the state is minimal and restricted in terms of what they could do and how they would act.

Early classical liberals believe that the state should be limited to act in areas like defence, protection and private property and should stay away from areas that infringement freedom of individuals.

‘The government that is best is that which governs least… When government grows our liberty withers’.
Suggest that he was a clear supporter of a minimal state. A minimal state should be contained by several checks and balances on its power.

CL were concerned with the expansion of rights under a growing state as they thought it had a potential to threaten certain natural rights like property.

Question 27

ML view on liberal democracy
——————————————
What are ML views on human nature?
Due to this what is there stance on democracy?
What issue was mill faced with when writing and who is inspired him?
How did Locks idea of representative government influence Mill?
What was Mill fearful for when it came to democracy?
What did his findings allow later liberals to do?
How did ML expand the state whilst also reforming it to achieve gov by consent.

Answer 27

They believe human nature is not fixed

They don’t just advocate for representative democracy like CL they want full democracy

When writing Mill was challenged with the Q of moving to universal suffrage therefore had revisit the liberal belief
Of individualism.Mill therefore acted on Locks thoughts on rep gov and expanded the idea to rep democracy.

Mill argued that liberal representatives would not side with the majority view but instead form a consensus which bought together various views in society into legislation.

He was fearful of the tyranny of the majority in democracy.

It allowed later liberals to defend rep democracy against direct democracy as this is a clear tyranny of the majority without the need of a consensus.

Codified constitution, devolution of powers away from westM to devolved institutions, electoral reform focusing on PR, accountable House of Lords.

Question 28

Key Ideas - similarities between CL and ML on Human Nature
————————————-
What view does liberals take on human nature, How are humans perceived, should all humans have rights?
What is the other view liberals take on human nature, Which thinkers showed this in their writing, How are humans perceived, what should we be for others to respect our rights?
What does human nature allow individuals to do?
Do individuals have the ability to change their position in society?
By individuals being able to plan for the future what can they achieve?
What are classical liberals belief on meritocracy?
What does humans being rational lead to when it comes to discussion?

Answer 28

Liberals have a positive view of human nature and believe individuals should have equal moral worth with unique abilities. They believe humans should be entitled to the same natural rights that shouldn’t be given to them by the government but on the basis of being human.

They take an optimistic view on Human Nature Locke and Mill writing shows this as they see people as reasonable rational beings who are capable of tolerance. They recognise that if we want others to respect our rights, liberties and property they must be tolerant and accept their rights too. Tolerance should be extend to the religious views of others.

It allows them to use reason and logic to debate, discuss and construct, peaceful arguments with others in order to better themselves and explain their opinions.

Individuals have the ability to plan the future, rather than accept their position as the ‘will of God’ or ‘fate’.

The idea that individuals are able to plan for their future by conducting a plan shows humans are capable of achieving their destiny.

Classical liberals believe that if someone really wanted to achieve something, they just need to be determined enough to work for it

All liberals believe humans are rational as humans tend to agree that reasoned discussion between people often leads to a consensus agreement on issues

Question 29

Let ideas - Differences between CL and ML on Human Nature (build on the ideas with key thinkers etc)
——————————————-
What type of individualism does both CL in ML believe in and give the definition?
What type of rationalism do both CL in ML, believe in and give the definition
What type of tolerance do CL in ML believe in and what is the definition? When did we start filming everybody like?

Answer 29

CL believe in egotistical individualism this is when people are concerned with pursuing self interest and therefore owe little to society.

On the other hand

ML believe in developmental individualism this is the idea that all individuals should be able to grow and achieve their potential

CL believe in utilitarianism this is the idea that most rational actions are those that produce the greatest happiness for the greatest number

On the other hand

ML believe the higher and lower pleasures, the actions within most utility at those that enable us to progress and develop our individuality

CL believe in the harm principle (Mill) this means actions of the state and individuals should be tolerated unless they cause harm.

ML believe in an enabling state with positive freedom, this means individuals might need help from the state to identify their real interest and pursuing higher pleasure.

Question 30

List ideas - society
————————-
Who is more important than society?
What my society except when it comes to an individual?
What did Locke l describe life in the state of nature?
What did Mill argue the purpose of society was + How are individuals described as?
According to Mill what should individuals be free from?
How did CL describe a society that restricts individual freedom?
What types of equalities do you all liberals believe in?
What famous book did Mary Wollstonecraft write,what jobs were women not allowed to be in and why would they not allowed in these jobs?
What disagreement do CL and ML have about women getting more opp?
What right do liberals think is most important and what thinker believes this?
What was Mills belief of meritocratic society?

Answer 30

The individual is more important than the society as a whole?

Society must accept the rights and liberties of all individuals therefore, there must be a good reason for the interest of the individual to be the sacrificed for the collective good of society the.

Locke Locke believed life in the state of nature, was present as everyone was afforded the same natural rights and liberties. This explains why liberals focus on the individual rather than society as a whole.

Mill argued the purpose of any societies to facilitate individualism as individuals are rational self-serving with unique abilities and interests. They all seek freedom.

For Mill freedom meant freedom from dependency on others including society and state and freedom to live a life that maximises, self-reliance and self-fulfilment.

Classical liberals believe that any society which seeks to restrict individual freedoms is dysfunctional.

All liberals believe in foundational equality, when considering society and all individuals have equal, moral worth and equal political rights.
All liberals believe, in equality of opportunity in society that inequalities in society should be solved by making the opportunities available to all individuals.

Mary Wollstonecraft in her writing of ‘A Vindication of the Rights of Women’ argued that many opportunities were not available to women like positions in business and politics as they were considered as rational individuals with an ability to reach their potential.

CL believe in meritocratic society we’re those you use there talent and work should be rewarded this makes society wealthier than a society where everything is shared.

Right to property as Locke said it was a way to express themselves in society

For a Mill it was a ‘prism’ through which individuals could develop their full potential, giving them opportunities within communities to better express there wants.

Question 31

Key ideas - differences between CL and ML in society
————————————-

Answer 31

Individualism
——————
Cl believes in an Atomistic society this means society is more than a collection of self interested, individual batting in their own way and not in society interest.

ML be live in a common good were self realisation does not happen in isolation our rights freedom and growth depend on people

Rights and liberties
—————————
CL beleive in negative freedom, freedom from the constraints of society only exist to limit the outside interference of others.

ML believe in positive freedom this means freedom to grow, and achieve. Our goals, is not possible in isolation we need the state and society.

Equality
————
CL believe in formal equality of opportunity jobs should be open to all individuals no one should be discriminated against.

ML believe in substantive equality of opportunity this means those born with disadvantages should still have the same opportunities as those who don’t

Question 32

Key ideas- What are classical liberals believe in capitalism
——————————————
Do all liberals believe capitalism benefits, the individual?
Why is capitalism necessary for individuals?
Do all liberals believe taxation should be low and why should it below?
What did Adam Smith argue about the market that CL consider?
What are CL is beliefs on tariffs and duties and free trade?

Answer 32

All liberals believe in capitalism

Are liberals believe that capitalism benefits, individuals

Liberals argue it is necessary for individuals to create an identity to owning private property as it decides how we would like our home to be as this is a form of self expression and celebrating individuality

Liberals agree, generally that taxation should be relatively low after because locate station encourages people to work hard I does not limit the rewards that people have earned for their success

Capitalism emerged in the 18 century. Adam Smith argued that the market should be left alone without state interference, and that the invisible hand of market forces would guide it to prosperity creating wealth this wealth would trickle down to the rest of the population enriching them as well, CL thought this would only occur if the economy was left alone.

CL Want the end of tariffs and duties on imports that had protected domestic producers of goods they advocate for greater free trade between nations to allow the trickle-down effect to be more widespread CL see taxation as theft and want to limit it where possible these views were becoming more accepted in the 19 century

Question 33

Key ideas- modern, liberals view of the economy
————————————————
What are ML views off the economy?
What type of economics to ML want?
Who was the man called that invented Keynesian economics and why?
What event did he see that convinced him laissez-faire capitalism was not working to uphold individual freedom?
What happened to employed people throughout the Great depression? How did this impact his view on laissez-faire capitalism an individual freedom?
What quote did he use for the state to manage the economy and how does the employment link to freedom?
Which type of governments did state directed capitalism influence and when?

Answer 33

ML take more cautious view on capitalism and think that if it’s left unchecked it increases inequality and restricts individuals.

ML want Keynesian economics rather than laissez-faire capitalism.

John Maynard Keynes was a liberal who recognised the failure of laissez-faire capitalism and wanted to bring a new economic model to address its failures

Keynes was committed to the maintenance of a capitalist economy. As he witnessed the great depression which convinced him that laissez-faire capitalism was not working to uphold individual freedom.

Mass unemployment throughout the Great Depression lead Keynes to fear the negative impact this would have by removing millions of individual freedoms and pave the way for illiberal doctrines like communism and fascism.

Keynes argue the state must ‘steer the economy’ managing demand to ensure full employment as employment was a key feature to achieving individual freedom.

This state directed capitalism influence several western governments from the 1930s and 1970s

Question 34

Key ideas- the state
—————————-
How do liberals view the state?
What do liberals view the state to be a threat to as a result what do they advocate for?
How does protection for rights however threat to individual liberty describe the state?
How do the liberals suggest to be a limited government?
Do you like both agreed that should be equality of opportunity?
What do all the boss believe the basic rule is for the state to provide?
Who is interest is more important the states are the individuals?
Who needs to give consent to the state to rule?
what is the definition of a social contract?
What can happen if the state does not provide individuals with their best interest?
What quote did Locke say about the government and its people?
Is the tension between liberalism and democracy If so why?

Answer 34

Liberals view the state as necessary to protect individuals rights and liberties from others.

Liberals believe the state itself can be a threat to Individual liberty therefore advocate for a limited gov

Necessary Evil

Liberals believe there should be checks and balances on the power of the state eg a codified constitution and independent judiciary this uphold the rule of law and entrenched rights and liberties for all individuals.

Liberals agree, there should be equality of opportunity provided by the state and the state can prevent discrimination against individuals and minorities

Liberals believe the basic rules of the state to provide liberty and freedom for all

An Individuals interest should take priority over the states interest

The state can only rule with consent by the people by entering a social contract.

The social contract agreed between individuals and the state is when individuals will agree to submit to the laws of the state in return for guaranteed protection of rights and liberties by the state.

If the government or state does not act in the best interest of the people, they have the power to change governments.

Lock said ‘government should be the servant not the master of the people’ and that people must have the right to free and fair elections with universal suffrage.

There is tension between liberalism and democracy democracy involved rule by the majority something which liberals wary of as a result liberal democracy is often in entrench the rights of individuals in the constitution of Bill of Rights to prevent the tyranny of the majority.

Question 35

Key ideas - differences between CL and ML on The state
————————————————
What a classical, liberals and modern oppose views on the type of state?
What are classical liberal and modern liberals view on positive and negative
freedom?
What are classical apples and mud in the post you on the negative rights and developmental individualism?

Answer 35

Limited government
——————————
CL - Minimal state, the state should protect negative freedom negative rights and guarantee formal equality of opportunity

On the other hand

ML - Enabling state state should promote positive, read, and positive rights and substantive equality of opportunity

Individualism
——————-
CL - Negative freedom, welfare state intervention makes individuals less self-reliant and more dependent on the state

On the other hand

ML - Positive freedom of individuals are to be truly self-reliant. The state must ensure that they live in enabling conditions

Liberal democracy
—————————
CL - Negative rights concerned by majoritarianism and the threat that extending the franchise possess to property rights.

On the other hand

ML - Developmental, individualism, all individuals should engage in political debates so that they can learn and express their views.