Liabilities Flashcards
What are current liabilities?
Current liabilities are obligations whose liquidation is reasonably expected to require the use of existing resources properly classified as current assets.
What is accounts payable?
Balances owed for goods, supplies, or services purchased on account.
Occurs when there is a time lag between receipt of goods/services and payment for them. Terms usually state a period of extended credit, commonly 30-60 days.
What does 2/10, n/30 mean?
It means a 2% discount if paid in 10 days, or none and due in 30.
What are notes payable?
Written promises to pay a sum of money on a certain date.
Can arise from purchases, financing, or other transactions.
How can notes payable be classified?
They can be classified as short-term or long-term depending on the payment due date.
What are current maturities of long-term debt?
The portion of bonds, mortgage notes, and other long-term indebtedness that will mature within the next fiscal year.
What indicates higher current maturities?
Higher current maturities indicate more financial stress.
What are short-term obligations to be refinanced?
Debts scheduled to mature within one year after the date of the balance sheet or within the operating cycle, whichever is longer.
What conditions must be met to exclude short-term obligations from current liabilities?
- Company must intend to refinance on a long-term basis. 2. Company must demonstrate the ability to refinance.
What is a dividend payable?
Amount owed by a corporation to stockholders as a result of board authorization.
Are undeclared dividends on cumulative preferred stock a liability?
No, undeclared dividends on cumulative preferred stock are not a liability.
When are dividends generally paid?
Dividends are generally paid within a month.
Are dividends in arrears an obligation?
Dividends in arrears are not an obligation until payment is authorized.
How are dividends paid with additional shares of stock reported?
They are reported in stockholders’ equity and are not a liability.
What are customer advances and deposits?
Returnable cash deposits received from customers and employees to guarantee performance.
How is the classification of customer deposits determined?
Classification as current or noncurrent depends on the time between the date of the deposit and the termination of the relationship that required a deposit.
What are unearned revenues?
Prepayment for services not yet rendered.
What is the accounting treatment when payment for unearned revenue is received?
Debit cash and credit unearned revenue.
What happens when the service for unearned revenue is rendered?
Debit unearned revenue and credit the revenue account.
What does the balance sheet report regarding obligations?
It reports obligations for commitments redeemable in goods and services.
What does the income statement report?
It reports revenues related to performance obligations satisfied during the period.
What is sales taxes payable?
A liability account for taxes due to various governments.
What happens if the liability account for sales tax differs from the governmental formula?
The company recognizes a gain or loss on sales tax collection.
What are income taxes payable?
Any federal or state income taxes payable on net income for the current period, as computed by the tax return.
Who is taxable among corporations, proprietorships, and partnerships?
Corporations are taxable; proprietorships and partnerships are not.
How do corporations generally make tax payments?
Corporations generally make periodic tax payments during the year based on estimates of tax liability.
How are accrued wages and salaries reported?
Amounts owed to employees for salaries or wages are reported as a current liability.
What are payroll deductions?
Payroll deductions include Social security taxes, Insurance, Medicare, Unemployment Tax, Income tax withholding, Union dues, and Employee Savings.
What is Social Security tax?
Social Security tax is 6.2% of the employee’s gross pay up to an annual limit of $110,100 (2014). Both employer and employee pay this tax.
What is Medicare tax?
Medicare tax is 1.45% of the employee’s total compensation, paid by both employer and employee, with the employer matching the employee contribution.
What is Federal Unemployment Tax (FUTA)?
FUTA is unemployment insurance at a rate of 6.2% up to $7,000 in compensation, paid only by employers.
What are compensated absences?
Compensated absences are paid absences for vacation, illness, and holidays, relating to rights that vest or accumulate.
What are vested rights?
Vested rights are benefits that an employee retains even if they leave the company.
What are accumulated rights?
Accumulated rights carry over from year to year and are forfeited if the employee leaves the company.
When is vacation pay booked as a liability?
Vacation pay is usually booked as a liability at the pay rate when the pay was earned.
How to record salaries and wages when earned?
Debit Salaries and Wages Expense and Credit Salaries and Wages Payable.
How to record salaries and wages when taken?
Debit Salaries and Wages Payable, Debit Salaries and Wages Expense (for increase in pay amount), and Credit Cash for total amount paid.
What are bonuses?
Bonuses are payments to certain employees in addition to salaries or wages, considered an operating expense and reported as a current liability.
How to record bonuses when earned?
Debit Wages and Salaries Expense for the amount of Bonus and Credit Salaries and Wages Payable for the amount of Bonus.
How to record bonuses when paid?
Debit Salaries and Wages Payable for the amount of bonus and Credit Cash for the amount of Bonus.
What is a contingency?
A condition, situation, or set of circumstances involving uncertainty as to possible gain or loss that will ultimately be resolved when one or more future events occur.
How are gain contingencies accounted for?
Not recorded, disclosed only if highly probable.
What are examples of gain contingencies?
Possible receipts from gifts, donations, asset sales, economic incentives, possible refunds from the government in tax disputes, pending court cases with a probable favorable outcome, and tax loss carryforwards.
What principle do gain contingencies follow?
The conservatism principle.
How are loss contingencies categorized?
Improbable, Reasonably Possible, and Remote.
How are probable losses accounted for?
Accrued (if estimable) and footnoted. If probable and estimable, debit the loss account and credit the liability account.
What is the accounting entry for a probable and estimable lawsuit loss?
Debit Lawsuit Loss and Credit Lawsuit Liability.
How are reasonably possible contingencies accounted for?
Footnoted.
How are remote contingencies accounted for?
Ignored.
What are common loss contingencies that are usually accrued?
Loss related to collectibility of receivables, obligations related to product warranties and defects, and premiums offered to customers.
What losses are not accrued?
Losses related to risk of loss or damage of enterprise property, general or unspecified business risks, and risk of loss from catastrophes assumed by property and casualty insurance companies.
What are contingencies that may be accrued related to losses?
Contingencies include the threat of expropriation of assets, pending or threatened litigation, actual or possible claims and assessments, guarantees of indebtedness of others, obligations of commercial banks under standby letters of credit, and agreements to repurchase receivables.
Examples of common loss contingencies include litigation, claims, and assessments.
What criteria must be met for losses to be accrued?
Losses should be accrued when both criteria of being probable and reasonably estimable are met.
What factors should be considered when determining whether to record a loss contingency?
Factors include the time period in which the action occurred, the probability of an unfavorable outcome, and the ability to make a reasonable estimate of the loss.
How should guarantee and warranty costs be treated under the cash basis method?
Under the cash basis method, warranty costs should be expensed as incurred if it is not probable that the liability has been incurred or if you cannot reasonably estimate the amount of the liability.
What is the preferred method for accounting for warranty costs?
The preferred method is the accrual basis method, which charges warranty costs to operating expense in the year of sale, matching expense with revenue.
This method is referred to as the ‘Expense Warranty Approach.’
How should premiums and coupons be accounted for?
The expense of premiums and coupons should be charged to the period of the sale. Estimate the liability and record the expense by estimating the number of premiums that customers will present for redemption.
What is an asset retirement obligation (ARO)?
An ARO must be recognized when a company has an existing legal obligation associated with the retirement of a long-lived asset and can reasonably estimate the amount of the liability. AROs should be recorded at fair value.
How is ARO cost treated in financial statements?
ARO cost is included in the carrying amount of the related long-lived asset.
What are examples of obligating events?
Dismantling, restoring, and reclamation of oil and gas properties; Decommissioning nuclear facilities; Closure, reclamation, and removal costs of mining facilities; Closure and post-closure costs of landfills.
How is the fair value of an obligation recorded when incurred?
Record fair value of obligation when it is incurred.
Example: 5 year life, 10% discount rate, dismantling removal cost of $1 million (NPV $620,920).
How is ARO allocated to expense over useful life?
Use straight line depreciation to allocate ARO to expense over useful life (⅛ per year).
Debit Accum Depr. on Asset; Credit Asset.
How is interest expense recorded for ARO?
Record interest expense each period (10%); ARO will grow each year by amount of interest expense.
Interest Expense ARO $62,092.
What is self-insurance?
Self Insurance is not insurance, but risk assumption. Little theoretical justification for establishment of liability. Don’t expense. Put a note - we are self insured for some risks.
How are current liabilities presented?
Current liabilities are usually recorded and reported at full maturity value. Generally presented first in liability and stockholders’ equity sections of balance sheet.
What should be included in the presentation of current liabilities?
Detail and supplemental information should provide full disclosure. Secured liabilities should be identified, along with related assets pledged as collateral.
What to do when a company will pay a currently maturing obligation from long-term assets?
Don’t include in current liabilities. Include a note to financial statements that discloses the general description of the financing agreement, the terms of any new obligation incurred or to be incurred, and terms of any equity security issued or to be issued.
How are gain contingencies presented?
Gain contingencies are not presented.
When should a company record a loss contingency?
Company records loss contingency and liability if loss is probable and estimable.
What to do if a loss is either probable or estimable?
Include in notes. Describe nature of contingency and estimate the liability, or disclose that estimate cannot be made.
What is long term debt?
Long term debt consists of a probable future sacrifice of economic benefit after one year or the operating cycle.
Obligations that are not payable within one year or the operating cycle.
What do bonds payable represent?
Bonds payable represent a promise to pay a sum of money at a designated maturity date, plus periodic interest at a specified rate on the maturity amount (face value).
What is a bond contract known as?
A bond contract is known as a bond indenture.
What are secured bonds?
Secured bonds are backed by a pledge of some sort of collateral, such as real estate or stocks and bonds of other corporations.
What are unsecured bonds?
Unsecured bonds are not backed by collateral and include debenture bonds and junk bonds, which are risky and pay a higher interest rate.
What are term bonds?
Term bonds are bonds that mature on a single date.
What are serial bonds?
Serial bonds are bonds that mature in installments and are frequently used by school districts and municipalities.
What are callable bonds?
Callable bonds give the issuer the right to redeem the bond prior to maturity.
What are convertible bonds?
Convertible bonds are convertible into other securities of the corporation for a specified time after issuance.
What are commodity-backed bonds?
Commodity-backed bonds are redeemable in measures of a commodity, such as barrels of oil or ounces of rare metal.
What are deep-discount bonds?
Deep-discount bonds are sold at a discount that provides the buyer’s total interest payoff at maturity.
Example: Lend $3.5M, no interest payment, pay back $5M.
What are registered bonds?
Registered bonds are issued in the name of the owner and require surrender of the certificate to complete a sale.
What are bearer (coupon) bonds?
Bearer bonds may be transferred from one owner to another by mere delivery and do not have a name on the bond certificate.
What are Income and Revenue Bonds?
Revenue bonds pay interest from specific revenue sources. They are often issued by municipalities, counties, and governmental authorities.
What factors determine the selling price of a bond issue?
The selling price is determined by supply and demand, relative risk, market conditions, and the state of the economy.
How does the investment community value a bond?
A bond is valued at the present value of its expected future cash flows, including interest payments and principal.
How are unamortized bond issue costs treated?
Unamortized bond issue costs are treated as a deferred charge and amortized over the life of the debt.
How are bond issue costs recorded on the books?
Bond issue costs are recorded as Cash, Unamortized bond issue costs, Premium on Bonds Payable, and Bonds Payable.
What does IFRS require regarding bond issue costs?
IFRS requires that issue costs reduce the carrying amount of the bond, which increases the expected interest rate.
What is the stated/coupon/nominal rate?
The rate offered by the company, stated as a percentage of bond face value (par).
Who sets the stated rate?
The bond issuer sets the stated rate.
How is interest paid to the bondholder calculated?
Interest paid to bondholder = stated rate & face value of bond.
What is the market (effective yield) rate?
The rate of interest actually earned by bondholders.
What happens to effective yield if bonds sell at a premium?
If bonds sell at a premium, the effective yield is lower than the stated rate.
What happens to effective yield if bonds sell at a discount?
If bonds sell at a discount, the effective yield (market rate) exceeds the stated rate.
What is the maturity (face or par) value?
The stated or principal amount of the bond, received upon maturity along with a final interest payment.
What is a bond sold at a discount?
A bond that sells for less than its face value.
When is a bond issued at a discount?
When the stated/coupon rate is less than the market rate.
What is the stated/coupon/nominal rate?
The interest rate offered by the company, written into the terms of the indenture and often printed on the certificate, stated as a percentage of bond face value (par).
Who sets the stated rate?
The bond issuer sets the stated rate.
How is interest paid to the bondholder calculated?
Interest paid to bondholder = stated rate x face value of bond.
What is the market (effective yield) rate?
The rate that provides an acceptable return commensurate with market conditions, representing the rate of interest actually earned by bondholders.
What happens if bonds sell at a discount?
If bonds sell at a discount, the effective yield (market rate) exceeds the stated rate.
What happens if bonds sell at a premium?
If bonds sell at a premium, the effective yield is lower than the stated rate.
How is interest recorded as interest expense by the bond issuer calculated?
Interest recorded as interest expense = market rate x carrying value of bond.
What is the maturity (face or par) value?
The stated or principal amount of the bond, which the bondholder will receive upon maturity, along with a final interest payment.
What happens when the stated rate equals the market rate?
When the stated rate equals the market rate, the bond is issued at par.
What is a bond sold at a discount?
A bond that sells for less than its face value.
When is a bond issued at a discount?
When the stated/coupon rate is less than the market rate.
What happens when a bond sells for more than its face value?
It sells at a premium.
When is a bond issued at a premium?
When the Stated/Coupon Rate > Market Rate.
How to find the price of a bond?
- Find interest payment (face value & stated rate).
- Discount the face value of the bond back to the present value using the market interest rate and the number of periods the bond will be outstanding.
- Discount the interest payment (annuity) back to the present value using the same market interest rate.
If the market is above the stated rate, the bond will sell at a discount. If the market is below the stated rate, the bond will sell at a premium.
What is Amortization of Discount?
When bonds sell for less than their face value, companies amortize the discount and charge it to interest expense over the period of time that the bonds are outstanding.
Amortization of a discount increases interest expense.
What is Amortization of Premium?
When bonds sell for more than their face value, companies amortize the premium and subtract it from interest expense over the period of time that the bonds are outstanding.
Amortization of a premium decreases interest expense.
What happens when bonds are issued between interest dates?
Purchaser must pay the interest accrued to date and will receive that back at the next interest payment date.
What is the effective interest method?
The effective interest method is preferred for amortization of discount or premium. It produces a periodic interest expense equal to a constant percentage of the carrying value of the bonds.
IFRS requires the effective interest method. GAAP permits straight line method when it’s not materially different from the effective interest method.
What is the formula for calculating Amortization Amount?
Bond Interest Expense - Bond Interest Paid = Amortization Amount.
How to calculate Bond Interest Expense?
Bond Interest Expense = Carrying Value of Bonds at Beginning of Period x Effective Interest Rate.
How is Bond Interest Paid calculated?
Bond Interest Paid = Face Amount of Bonds x Stated Interest Rate
What are the two types of amortization for bonds?
Amortization can be discount (increases interest expense) or premium (decreases interest expense)
How is the carrying value of a discount bond calculated?
Carrying Value of a discount bond = Face value minus any unamortized discount
How is the carrying value of a premium bond calculated?
Carrying value of a premium bond = Face value plus any unamortized premium
How do you calculate the new carrying amount for a premium bond?
Subtract amortized premium from carrying amount to get new carrying amount.
What happens to interest expense as the carrying value of a bond goes down?
As the carrying value goes down, the interest expense goes down.
How does the effective interest method affect interest expense in earlier years for discount bonds?
If bonds are initially sold at a discount and the effective interest method is used, interest expense in earlier years will be lower than if the straight line method of amortization was used.
What is imputation of interest rate in note transactions?
In note transactions, interest rates can be imputed or approximated when the fair value of the property, goods, or services cannot be determined and the note has no ready market.
What factors affect the choice of imputed interest rate?
The prevailing rate for similar instruments of issuers with similar credit ratings affects the choice of rate.
What is the Fair Value Option?
The option to report financial instruments at fair value, with all gains and losses related to change in fair value reported on the income statement.
When is the Fair Value Option generally available?
Generally only available at the time of purchase of the financial instrument or when the financial liability is incurred.
What is an unrealized holding gain or loss?
The net change of the fair value of the liability from one period to another, exclusive of interest expense recognized but not recorded.
How is the liability reported under the Fair Value Option?
The liability is reported at fair value on each reporting date, and the change in value (gain or loss) is reported as part of net income.
What happens to the fair value of a bond payable when it decreases?
A decrease in the fair value of a bond payable will result in an unrealized holding gain.
What happens to the fair value of a bond payable when it increases?
An increase in the fair value of a bond payable will result in an unrealized holding loss.
What are off-balance sheet financing arrangements?
An attempt to borrow money in such a way as to prevent recording the obligations.
What is a non-consolidated subsidiary?
If the parent company owns less than 50% of the subsidiary, the assets and liabilities don’t need to be reported on the parent company’s balance sheet.
What is a special-purpose entity (SPE)?
An entity created for a special project, such as to build a new plant, where the company guarantees that it or another party will purchase all output.
How do operating leases contribute to off-balance sheet financing?
Companies lease assets instead of owning them, reporting only rent expense each period and providing note disclosure of the transaction.
How to account for bonds issued at par?
Debit Cash, Credit Bonds Payable.
How to account for bonds issued at a discount?
Debit Cash for amount received, Debit Discount on Bonds Payable for difference, Credit Bonds Payable for Face Value (always).
How to account for bonds issued at a premium?
Debit Cash for Full Amount Received, Credit Premium on Bonds Payable for difference, Credit Bonds Payable for Face Value (always).
How are unamortized bond issue costs treated under GAAP?
They are treated as a deferred charge and amortized over the life of the debt.
How are bond issue costs treated under IFRS?
They reduce the carrying amount of the bond, which increases the effective interest rate.
How to account for periodic interest payments on Bonds Issued at Par?
Debit Interest Expense
Credit Cash
How to account for Bonds Issued at Discount?
Debit Interest Expense
Credit Discount on Bonds Payable
Credit Cash
How to account for Bonds Issued at Premium?
Debit Interest Expense
Debit Premium on Bonds Payable
Credit Cash
What does the adjusting entry for bond premium amortization do?
Decreases interest expense and decreases the balance in premium on bonds payable.
What are Discount on bonds payable and Premium on bonds payable?
Valuation accounts.
How to account for the payment of debt (debt extinguishment)?
Compare cash paid to buy bond to the carrying value or book value of the bond.
What happens if cash paid is greater than carrying value?
You have a loss.
What happens if cash paid is less than carrying value?
You have a gain.
What happens if cash paid equals carrying value?
You have no gain and no loss.
Are Premium and Discount issues relevant in an extinguishment?
No, only matters what we paid to buy it back and what the book value is.
How should gains and losses on early extinguishment of debt be reported?
As other gains and losses on the income statement.
How to account for gains or losses from early extinguishment of debt?
Recognize gains/losses - difference between reacquisition price and net carrying amount of debt - in period of redemption.
What to do in early extinguishment of bonds payable between interest dates?
Premium must be amortized to purchase date, interest must be accrued from last interest date to purchase date, and any costs of issuing bonds must be amortized up to purchase date.
What is the key difference between long-term notes payable and bonds payable?
A long-term note payable is a long-term liability valued at its present value.
What are the similarities in accounting for notes and bonds?
Both are written promises to pay interest and to repay the principal amount on specified future dates. Both are reported as liabilities, and interest is accrued as a current liability.
How is a note valued?
A note is valued at the present value of its future interest and principal cash flows.
How does a company handle discounts or premiums on notes?
The company amortizes any discount or premium over the life of the note.
What is a zero-interest bearing note?
A note where the company records the difference between the face amount and the present value, receives a discount, and amortizes that amount to interest expense over the life of the note.
How is the implicit discount on notes payable calculated?
The implicit discount is calculated as the difference between the face amount and the present value of the note.
What is the common method for amortizing discounts on notes payable?
The effective interest method is the most common method for amortizing discounts on notes payable.
How do you amortize the discount over the life of the note?
Amortize the discount using the straight-line method or the effective interest method, increasing the carrying value from inception to the redemption date.
How do you determine the year’s amortization discount?
Multiply the prior year carrying amount by the implicit interest rate and add that to the carrying value.
How are discounts on long-term notes payable accounted for?
Discounts are amortized to interest expense.
What are the conditions under which the stated interest rate on a note payable is presumed to be fair?
The stated interest rate is presumed to be fair unless: 1. No interest rate is stated, or 2. The stated interest rate is unreasonable, or 3. The stated face amount of the debt instrument is materially different from the current cash sales price for the same or similar items from the current fair value of the debt instrument.
How is interest calculated if there is no stated interest rate on a note payable?
The amount of interest is the difference between the face value of the note and the fair value of the property.
What is the purpose of off-balance-sheet financing arrangements?
Many believe removing debt enhances the quality of the balance sheet.
How do loan covenants relate to off-balance-sheet financing?
Loan covenants often limit the amount of debt a company may have. Off-sheet financing may not be included in this debt limitation.
What is the argument regarding asset valuation and off-balance-sheet financing?
Some argue the asset side of a balance sheet is understated, and if assets were reported at fair values, there would be less pressure for off-balance-sheet financing arrangements.
What has FASB done regarding off-balance-sheet financing?
FASB has increased disclosure requirements for off-balance-sheet financing.
How do companies present long-term debt on financial statements?
Companies with large amounts and numerous issues of long-term debt frequently report one amount on the balance sheet, supported with note disclosure comments and schedules.
How should debt that matures within one year be reported?
Debt that matures within one year should be reported as a current liability, unless the company is using noncurrent assets to accomplish the redemption.
What should note disclosures for long-term debt indicate?
Note disclosures should indicate: Nature of liabilities, Maturity dates, Interest rates, Call provisions, Conversion privileges, Restrictions imposed by creditors.
What should be disclosed regarding assets pledged as security for debt?
Assets pledged as security for the debt should be indicated in the assets section of the balance sheet.
What information should be disclosed about future payments for long-term debt?
The amount of future payments for sinking fund requirements and long-term debt maturities during each of the next five years.
What does the Debt to Assets Ratio measure?
It measures the percentage of total assets provided by creditors. Higher percentages indicate greater risk.
What does the Times Interest Earned ratio indicate?
It indicates the ability to meet interest payments as they come due, calculated as EBIT/Interest Expense.
What is a troubled debt restructuring?
A troubled debt restructuring occurs when a creditor grants a concession to a debtor that it would otherwise not consider, often due to economic or legal reasons related to the debtor’s financial situation.
What are the two basic types of transactions in debt restructuring?
- Settlement of the debt at less than the carrying amount.
- Continuation of the debt with a modification of terms.
How is the loss recorded by a creditor in a troubled debt restructuring determined?
The loss is based on the expected future cash flows discounted at the historical effective interest rate.
What does settlement of debt include?
Settlement of debt can include cash and the transfer of noncash assets such as real estate, receivables, or issuance of debtor’s stock. Noncash assets are credited at fair value.
How does a debtor recognize the excess of carrying amount forgiven?
The debtor recognizes the excess of carrying amount forgiven as a gain.
What does a creditor charge against Allowance for Doubtful Accounts?
The creditor charges the excess (loss) against Allowance for Doubtful Accounts.
How does a debtor recognize gain or loss on disposition of assets given up?
The debtor recognizes gain or loss based on the difference between fair value and book value.
What are the ways to modify terms?
Handled several ways:
1. Reduction of stated interest rate
2. Extension of maturity date of face amount of debt
3. Reduction of the face amount of the debt
4. Reduction or deferral of any accrued interest
How is the debtor’s gain calculated?
Debtor’s gain is based on undiscounted amounts.
How is the creditor’s loss calculated?
Creditor’s loss is based on expected cash flows discounted at the historical effective rate of loan.
When may the debtor record a gain?
The debtor may or may not record a gain.
Gain not recorded if future cash flows exceed pre-restructuring carrying amount. Gain recorded if pre-restructuring carrying amount exceeds future cash flows.
What is the most common form of organization?
The corporate form of organization represents the largest share of resources controlled, goods produced, and people employed.
What is a principal advantage of corporations?
The principal advantage is the facility for attracting and accumulating large amounts of capital.
How is a corporation incorporated?
A corporation is incorporated in only one state and is subject to that state’s laws.
Where are nearly half of all corporations in the US incorporated?
Nearly half of all corporations in the US are incorporated in Delaware due to its friendly tax and regulatory environment.
What must a corporation submit to incorporate?
A corporation submits articles of incorporation to the state with business name, owners, description, etc.
What has the Delaware loophole provided in savings?
The Delaware loophole has provided an estimated $9.5 billion in savings over the past decade.
What does accounting for stockholders’ equity follow?
Accounting for stockholders’ equity follows the provisions of the state’s business incorporation act.
What is the Model Business Corporate Act?
Some states follow the Model Business Corporate Act from the American Bar Association.
How does the capital stock or share system work?
Within each class of stock, each share equals every other share, and the number of shares possessed determines each owner’s interest.
What is a characteristic of state laws regarding corporations?
State laws are complex and can vary significantly from state to state.
