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Biochem > Leys SG exam 2 > Flashcards

Leys SG exam 2 Flashcards

1
Q

how to cells acquire nucleotides?

A

de novo synthesis and salvage pathways

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2
Q

result of denovo synthesis in purines?

A

synthesis of inosine

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3
Q

can be converted into adenosine and guanosine

A

inosine

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4
Q

derived from several sources including aspartate, glutamine, glycine, and methyl groups supplied by folic acid and carbon dioxide

A

atoms in newly synthesized purines

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5
Q

regulate denovo synthesis of purines at multiple points in the pathway

A

ADP and GDP

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6
Q

can be recycled through the salvage pathway with hypoxanthine guanine phosphoribosyl transferase (HGPRT)

A

hypoxanthine and guanine

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7
Q

catalyzes a hydroxylase type reaction leading to formation of uric acid

A

xanthine oxidase

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8
Q

cause of gout?

A

excess uric acid

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9
Q

most often caused by low levels of the secretion of uric acid, but excess production as well

A

gout

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10
Q

leads to localized inflammatory response in joints

A

crystallization of sodium urate

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11
Q

used to treat gout by inhibiting xanthine oxidase (preventing uric acid formation)

A

allopurinol

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12
Q

HGPRT deficiency resulting in severe retardation, crippling gouty arthritis and self-mutilation

A

lesch-nyhan syndrome

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13
Q

occurs in males only because of the HGPRT gene location

A

lesch-nyhan syndrome

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14
Q

location of HGPRT gene

A

X chromsome

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15
Q

can replenish TCA cycle intermediates through the production of fumarate

A

breakdown of purines

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16
Q

derived from aspartate and carbamoyl phosphate

A

atoms in a pyrimidine ring

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17
Q

located on the same CAD protein

A

1st 3 enzymes in the synthesis of pyrimidines

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18
Q

can be interconverted

A

pyrimidines U and C

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19
Q

converted to TMP by thymidylate synthase

A

dUMP

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20
Q

enzyme requiring the transfer of a methyl group from tetrahydrofolate

A

thymidylate synthase

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21
Q

used as therapeutic agents for treating cancer and bacterial infections

A

inhibitors of tetrahydrofolate production

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22
Q

used as anticancer agents

A

fluro substituted pyrimidine analogs that inhibit thymidylate synthase

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23
Q

converts ribonucleotides to deoxyribonucleotides

A

ribonucleotide reductase

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24
Q

A bonds with (in DNA)

A

T

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25
Q

G bonds with (in DNA and RNA)

A

C

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26
Q

A bonds with (in RNA)

A

U

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27
Q

can be compared in different species to determine phylogenetic relationships

A

homologous regions of DNA

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28
Q

contain similar DNA but often arranged differently on the chromosomes of each species

A

closely related organisms

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29
Q

3 divisions/domains of the living world?

A

bacteria, archaea, eukaryotes

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30
Q

4 main processes for generating change in a genome

A
  • intragenic mutation (single base change)
  • gene duplication
  • DNA segment shuffling
  • horizontal gene transfer
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31
Q

usually clustered into groups (operons) that are transcribed as one single unit

A

bacterial genes

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32
Q

often broken up with regions of noncoding DNA or introns between regions of coding DNA (exons)

A

eukaryotic genes

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33
Q

comparing exons and introns of closely related species:

A

exons will be similar (conserved) and introns will vary in size/content

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34
Q

densely packed with genes, leaving very little DNA that is non coding

A

bacterial chromosomes

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35
Q

do not code for proteins

A

most of the DNA in higher eukaryotes

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36
Q

made up of repeated sequences, many of which are mobile elements that can be moved around in the genome

A

most of human genome

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37
Q

linear chromosomes

A

eukaryotic

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38
Q

circular chromosomes

A

bacterial

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39
Q

have been completed including several bacteria that are found in the oral cavity

A

human genome and genomes of a large number of other organisms

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40
Q

possible to construct metabolic pathways and compare them with other organisms by:

A

examining their entire genome content

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41
Q

can be grouped into families based on similar (homologous) sequences found in different organisms

A

genes

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42
Q

can be found in genes of the same organism that carry out different but similar functions

A

homologous sequences

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43
Q

can have similar sequences (homology)

A

genes that have similar fans in very distantly related organisms

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44
Q

how can phylogenetic relationships of different organisms be compared?

A

by comparing the DNA sequences of similar genes in 2 organisms

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45
Q

DNA dependent (uses DNA as a template) DNA synthesizing enzymes

A

DNA polymerase

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46
Q

DNA dependent RNA polymerase

A

primase

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47
Q

synthesizes a small RNA primer that can be used by the DNA polymerase to elongate the chain

A

primase

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48
Q

RNA dependent DNA synthesizing enzyme

A

reverse transcriptase

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49
Q

minimizes the number of mistakes (mis-incorporated nucleotides) by using a 3- to 5 exonuclease (proofreading)

A

DNA polymerase

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50
Q

synthesize DNA in the 5’ to 3’ direction only

A

DNA polymerase as well as other nucleic acid polymerases

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51
Q

where are new nucleotides added during replication

A

to the 3’ carbon on the last nucleotide of the new DNA chain

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52
Q

where are base components of each nucleotide connected to the sugar?

A

at the 1’ carbon

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53
Q

where are adjacent nucleotides in a DNA chain attached to the sugar

A

5’ and 3’ carbons

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54
Q

which carbon differs between RNA and DNA?

A

2’

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55
Q

elongating enzyme, cannot initiate synthesis

A

DNA polymerase

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56
Q

required for elongation of a new strand using the DNA polymerase

A

a primer

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57
Q

contains one origin of replication

A

bacterial chromosomes

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58
Q

proceeds in both directions away from the origin until the 2 replication forks meet at a specific sequence on the other side of the chromosome

A

DNA synthesis

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59
Q

new rounds of DNA replication can begin before the previous round is completed

A

in bacteria

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60
Q

contain many origins of replication that may change during the development of the organism

A

eukaryotic chromosomes

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61
Q

each chromosome is replicated only once each cell division

A

in eukaryotes

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62
Q

new rounds of replication do not start until after the cell divides

A

in eukaryotes

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63
Q

linear and special structures in eukaryotic chromosomes placed on each end

A

telomeres

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64
Q

constructed with the enzyme telomerase

A

telomeres

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65
Q

uses an RNA template to synthesize a short repeated DNA sequence at the ends of chromosomes

A

telomerase

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66
Q

since polymerase must synthesize new DNA in the 5’ to 3’ direction,,,

A

the 2 polymerase molecules on opposite strands move away from each other

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67
Q

unwinds the 2 DNA strands before polymerization of new strands

A

helicases

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68
Q

keep the 2 complementary strands for reforming a double helix

A

single stranded binding proteins

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69
Q

moves toward replication fork

A

polymerase on leading strand

70
Q

moves away from replication fork

A

polymerase on lagging strand

71
Q

synthesized in short Okizaki fragments

A

the lagging strand

72
Q

initiates synthesis of each Okizaki fragment by making a short RNA primer

A

Primase

73
Q

synthesized by the continuous movement of the DNA polymerase along the template

A

leading strand

74
Q

signals that the DNA is unreplicated and is ready to be used as a template for the next round of synthesis

A

methylation of the DNA

75
Q

new or modified genes can be generated by 1 or a combination of 4 events:

A

1) point mutations
2) duplication of entire gene
3) segment shuffling
4) horizontal gene transfer

76
Q

point mutation locations in new gene generation

A

in the coding region that change the amino acid composition of the protein

77
Q

mixing the segments of one gene with segments of another gene

A

segment shuffling

78
Q

horizontal gene transfer

A

acquisition of new activities by transfer of genes between 2 organisms

79
Q

homologous that usually code for proteins that carry out similar functions

A

genes in gene families that share homologous regions

80
Q

facilitate the initiation of recombination

A

breaks in the DNA (especially double stranded)

81
Q

a defect in DNA ligase effects:

A

the joining together of adjacent segments of DNA on a chromosomes, causing abnormal amounts of recombination

82
Q

the reciprocal exchange of genetic information

A

recombination

83
Q

1) reciprocal exchange during cell division
2) DNA damage (x-ray)
3) introduction of foreign DNA
4) programmed recombination during the development/maturation of a cell type (antibody producing genes during B-cell maturation)

A

recombination can be the result of:

84
Q

the non-reciprocal exchange of genetic information

A

gene conversation

85
Q

recombination between direct repeated sequences on the same chromosome causes:

A

the loss of DNA that was between the 2 repeated segments

86
Q

can be inserted in a chromosome by recombination between a region on a circular molecule and a homologous region on the chromosome

A

circular DNA

87
Q

x rays and other agents that cause breaks in DNA

A

induce recombination

88
Q

found in all species from bacteria to human

A

transposable elements

89
Q

move from one location in the DNA to another location within that cell

A

transposable elements

90
Q

can cause changes in the DNA at the sight of insertion

A

transposable elements

91
Q

1st type of transposable element

A

contains inverted repeated sequences at the ends and causes a short region of the genome to be duplicated at the site of insertion

92
Q

2nd type of transposable element

A

structurally similar to a retrovirus and transposes through an RNA intermediate

93
Q

recombination resulted from imprecise pairing of tenderly repeated sequences

A

unequal crossing-over

94
Q

results in the loss or gain of gene copies

A

unequal crossing-over

95
Q

2 types of mutations

A

DNA rearrangements and base substitutions

96
Q

many mechanisms for repairing DNA

A

in each cell

97
Q

can either be repaired or lead to a permanent mutation

A

damage to a nucleotide (deamination)

98
Q

can be caused either by errors during replication or by injury to the DNA from chemicals or radiation

A

mutations

99
Q

made up of segmental duplications or large regions of DNA that are present in more than one copy

A

a small fraction of the genome (3% in humans)

100
Q

duplicated DNA is generated by a process called:

A

gene amplification

101
Q

can result in resistance to drugs, transformation into cancerous cells or other changes in the cell phenotype

A

gene amplification

102
Q

due to defects in DNA repair enzymes

A

several human diseases

103
Q

coenzymes in carboxylations

A

B1

104
Q

oxidorectase coenzymes

A

B2/B3

105
Q

transaminase coenzymes

A

B6

106
Q

carboxylase coenzymes

A

Biotin

107
Q

coenzyme in single carbon transfers

A

folic acid/B12

108
Q

causes angular stomatitis

A

lack of riboflavin

109
Q

B1

A

thiamin

110
Q

B2

A

riboflavin, FAD

111
Q

B3

A

Niacin, NAD, NADP

112
Q

B6

A

pyridoxine

113
Q

B7

A

biotin

114
Q

B12

A

folic acid-coalbumin

115
Q
  • act as coenzymes in many metabolic pathways

- body has no way to store (except B12)

A

water soluble vitamins

116
Q

excess can be excreted in the urine

A

B vitamins

117
Q

a deficiency for any single one of these vitamins is rare

A

B vitamins

118
Q

the greater the caloric intake, the larger the requirement for:

A

B vitamins

119
Q

evidence is emerging that suggests that excess of ___can be toxic

A

B vitamins

120
Q

measurements of vitamin levels in the blood relate to

A

recent intake, rather than overall body status

121
Q

most are modified before they become active

A

vitamins

122
Q

deficiency syndrome of inflammation of the corners of the mouth

A

angular stomatitis, caused by lack of riboflavin

123
Q

found in egg whites, binds tightly to biotin preventing absorption

A

avidin

124
Q

important for single C transfer reactions

A

folic acid

125
Q

active form of folic acid

A

tetrahydrofolate

126
Q

converts folate or dihydrofolate to THF

A

dihydrofolate reductase (DHFR)

127
Q

oxidizes DHF to dihydrofolate

A

thymidylate synthase

128
Q

inhibitor of folate reduction (DHFR) used as antibiotics

A

trimethoprim

129
Q

inhibitor of folate reduction (DHFR) used for cancer therapies

A

methotrexate

130
Q

increased demand during pregnancy and lactation due to fast growing cells

A

folic acid

131
Q

one of most common vitamin deficiencies

A

folic acid

132
Q

can cause megaloblastic anemia

A

deficiency in folic acid

133
Q

difficult to distinguish from B12 deficiencies

A

folic acid

134
Q

both involved in a methylation reaction

A

B12 and folic acid

135
Q

concentrated in the liver

A

B12

136
Q

deficiency causes scurvy, that results in defecting collagen synthesis

A

vitamin C

137
Q

impairs immune function

A

vitamin C

138
Q

not as readily absorbed, but can be stored in tissues

A

vitamins A, D, E K (fat soluble)

139
Q

fat soluble vitamins that can be toxic in excess

A

A and D

140
Q

teratogenic vitamin, should be avoided during pregnancy

A

vitamin A

141
Q

signaling molecule that interacts with ligand-activated transcription factors

A

retinoic acid (vitamin A)

142
Q

deficiency causes night blindness

A

vitamin A

143
Q

regulates calcium and phosphorus homeostasis

A

vitamin D

144
Q

majority is produced by UV exposure of skin

A

vitamin D

145
Q

people in norther climates have a difficult time getting sufficient amounts of this vitamin in the winter

A

vitamin D

146
Q

deficiency causes demineralization of bones with increased susceptibly to fractures

A

vitamin D

147
Q

linked to early childhood caries

A

vitamin D

148
Q

necessary for blood coagulation

A

vitamin K

149
Q

no longer topologically inside the cell

A

proteins that have a crossed membrane

150
Q

must recross the membrane to get back inside the cell

A

proteins that have a crossed membrane

151
Q

move from compartment to compartment to get back within a cell

A

vesicles

152
Q

vesicles get back into a cell by:

A

budding and membrane fusion

153
Q

many proteins have signal sequences at their:

A

amino terminus

154
Q

direct proteins to cross the membrane

A

signal sequences at amino terminus

155
Q

fewer proteins have:

A

internal signal sequences

156
Q

surrounded by a double lipid membrane bilayer

A

nucleus

157
Q

allow molecules, including proteins to pass from the cytosol into the nucleus and back

A

nuclear pores

158
Q

pass through nuclear pores by an active process

A

larger proteins

159
Q

bind to nuclear transport signals found on some nuclear bound proteins and facilitate transport into the nucleus

A

nuclear import receptors

160
Q

requires multiple signals

A

to transport proteins from the cytosol into the lumen of the mitochondria

161
Q

multiple in the mitochondrial membrane

A

protein translators

162
Q

each reacts with a specific set of proteins

A

translocator

163
Q

requires energy

A

transport into the mitochondria

164
Q

proteins enter ___ using a mechanism similar to mitochondrial entry

A

peroxisomes

165
Q

proteins travel through this from the endoplasmic reticulum to many sites

A

golgi

166
Q

binds to the signal sequence during translation and directs the nascent peptide to the ER membrane

A

signal recognition protein (SRP)

167
Q

translated in the cytosol and then transported through the mitochondrial membrane (requires ATP)

A

proteins bound for the mitochondria

168
Q

transported through the ER membrane during translation (no energy required)

A

proteins that are headed into or through the ER

169
Q

helps direct proteins to their ultimate location

A

carbohydrate modification of proteins in the ER

170
Q

if there are no other signals directing the protein to other locations, the “default pathway” is:

A

to send the protein to the cell surface

171
Q

in regulated secretory pathways, cells store proteins in ____ until they are signaled to release them by fusion of vesicles with the cellular membrane

A

secretory vesicles

172
Q

major intracellular components of an animal cell?

A

cytosol, mito, RER, SER, nucleus, peroxisomes, lysosomes, endoscopes

Biochem (2 decks)

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