Levels of Structure Flashcards
What is the Integumentary system and examples of it?
Covers the body and protects it
What is Skeletal system and examples of it?
Protects the body and provides support for locomotion and movement
ex. bones, Cartilage and ligaments
What is the Nervous system and examples of it?
Receives stimuli, integrates information and coordinates the body’s functions.
ex. Brain, spinal cord, nerves and sense organs
What is the Muscular system and examples of it?
Permits body movement.
ex. Skeletal muscles, smooth muscle, and cardiac muscle
What is the Digestive system and examples of it?
Digests food and absorbs soluble nutrients from ingested food
ex. Teeth salivary glands, esophagus, stomach intestines, liver, and pancreas
What is the Respiratory system and examples of it?
Collects oxygen and exchanges it for carbon dioxide
ex. Lungs, pharynx, trachea, and other air passageways
What is the Circulatory systems and examples of it?
Transports cells and materials throughout the body
ex. Heart, blood vessels, blood and lymph structures.
What is the Immune system and examples of it?
Removes foreign chemical. and microorganisms from the bloodstream
ex. T-lymphocytes, B-lymphocytes, and macrophages; lymph structures
What is the Urinary system and examples of it?
Removes metabolic wastes from the bloodstream
Ex. Kidney, bladder, an associated ducts
What is the Reproductive system and examples of it?
Produces sex cells for the next generation.
Ex. Testes, Ovaries, and associated reproductive structures
What is the Anterior (ventral) direction in relation to body and what’s an example?
Nearer to or at eh from of the body
ex. sternum is anterior to the heart
What is the Posterior (dorsal) direction in relation to the body and what’s an example?
Nearer to or at the back of the body
ex. Esophagus is posterior to the trachea
What is the superior (cephalic or cranial) direction in relation to body and what’s an example?
Toward the head or the upper part of a structure generally refers to structures in the trunk.
ex. Heart is superior to the liver.
What is the Inferior (caudal) direction in relation to body and what’s an example?
Away from the head or toward the lower part of the structure; generally refers to structures in the trunk
ex. Stomach is inferior to the lungs
What is the Medial direction in relation to the body and what’s and example?
Nearer to the midline of the body or a structure
ex. Ulna is on the medial side of the forearm
What is the Lateral direction in relation to the body and what’s and example?
Away from the midline of the body
ex. Lungs are lateral to the heart
What is the Ipsilateral direction in relation to the body and what’s an example?
On the same side of the body
ex. Gall bladder and ascending colon of the large intestine are ipsilateral.
What is the Contralateral direction in relation to the body and what’s an example?
on the opposite side of the body
ex. ascending and descending colons of the large intestine are ipsilateral.
What is the Proximal direction in relation to the body and what’s and example?
Nearer to the attachment of an extremity to the trunk or structure
ex. Femur is proximal to the tibia
What is the Distal direction in relation to the body and what’s an example?
Farther from the attachment of the extremity to the trunk of a structure
ex. phalanges are distal to the carpals
What is the superficial direction in relation to the body and what’s an example?
Toward the surface of the body
ex. Muscles of the thoracic wall are superior to the viscera in the thoracic cavity.
What is the Deep direction in relation to the body and what and example?
Away from the surface of the body
ex. Ribs are deep to the skin of the chest.
What does Gross Anatomy deal with?
Body structures seen without a microscope.
What is the study of cells and how they function?
Cytology
What is the name for the study that deals with the excretory system and its activities?
Renal Physiology
What is the human body composed of at the simplest level?
Atoms
What do atoms combine to form?
Molecules
What do molecules combine to form?
Cells
What do cells combine to form?
Tissues
What is the fundamental unit of living things?
Cells
Name the four basic types of tissues.
Epithelial tissue, connective tissue, muscle tissue, nerve tissue
What forms an organ system?
Several organs with complementary functions.
What is metabolism?
The sum of all chemical processes in the body.
What is catabolism?
The breakdown of organic matter usually requires the release of energy.
What is anabolism?
The buildup of organic matter requires an input of energy.
What are the five characteristics of the human body?
- movement - growth - conductivity - reproduction - inability
What is homeostasis?
The process working to maintain the body’s internal environment within normal limits even with external environment changes.
When is the body said to be in homeostasis?
When the body’s needs of the cells are met and its activities are occurring smoothly.
What is conductivity?
The ability of cells to receive stimuli and transport them from one body part to another.
How does the body self-regulate?
Via feedback systems.
What is the difference between a positive and negative feedback system?
Negative feedback decreases the system’s output to set the body’s system back to a setpoint. Positive feedback stimulates more deviation from a set point until the end is achieved.
Example: Positive - blood clotting, Negative - low glucose levels creating production of insulin.
Where is the anterior aspect of the body?
Toward the front of the body.
What is the direction away from the head, toward the lower part of the body?
Inferior
Using directional terms, describe the position of the lungs in relation to the intestines.
The lungs are superior (cephalic/cranial) to the intestines.
Using directional terms, describe the position of the kidneys in relation to each other.
The kidneys are lateral to each other.
Using directional terms, describe the position of the spine in relation to the ribs.
The spine is ventral to the ribs.
Using directional terms, describe the position of the ankle in relation to the knee.
The ankle is distal to the knee.
Using directional terms, describe the position of bones in relation to the skin.
Bones are deep to the skin.
Using directional terms, describe the position of the ears in relation to the mouth.
The ears are lateral to the mouth.
What divides the body into right and left sides?
The sagittal plane.
What divides the body into front and back?
The frontal plane.
What is housed in the pericardial cavity?
The heart.
What is contained in the peritoneal cavity?
Visceral organs of the abdomen and pelvis.
What does the parietal layer line?
A cavity.
What does the visceral layer cover?
An organ.
What is the term for something which cannot be broken down into a more basic substance?
Elements
What are elements made of?
Atoms
What are the three particles that make up an atom?
Protons, electrons, neutrons
What is the difference between protons and electrons?
Protons have a positive charge, electrons hold a negative charge.
When are atoms most stable?
When their outer shell of electrons have a full quota.
What is the difference between oxidation and reduction?
Oxidation is the loss of electrons. Reduction is when an atom gains electrons.
How does an atom become an ion?
When an atom gains or loses an electron(s).
How are chemical bonds formed?
When an atom is linked to another and comes close enough to share an electron that overlaps.
Define ionic bonds and covalent bonds.
An ionic bond shares one atom, while a covalent bond shares two or more electrons.
What element is able to enter into many covalent bonds?
Carbon
What kind of chemical bond is considered weak?
Hydrogen bond
What is the universal solvent in the human body?
Water
What is the measure of a substance’s acidity or alkalinity?
pH
What is a pH between 7 and 14 considered?
Alkaline
Name a body fluid that is very acidic.
Gastric juice 1.4 pH
What are the four categories of organic compounds found in the body?
Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids.
What type of compound is an energy source for the body?
Carbohydrates
What are sugars classified as?
Simple carbohydrates, classified as monosaccharides if they are composed of single unit molecules.
What is the basic form of fuel in the body?
Glucose
Name three types of disaccharides.
Maltose, sucrose, lactose.
What is maltose the result of?
A combination of two glucose units.
What is the main carbohydrate in milk?
Lactose.
What is another name for complex carbohydrates?
Polysaccharides.
Name three important polysaccharides.
Starch, glycogen, cellulose.
What is glycogen’s function?
Storing glucose in the human liver and skeletal muscles.
What is cellulose?
A dietary fiber.
What are the four types of lipids?
Fats, phospholipids, waxes, steroids.
What is it called when a fatty acid can accommodate more hydrogen atoms in its chemical bond?
Dehydration synthesis.
What is considered to be an unhealthy fatty acid?
Saturated fats.
What is stored in adipose tissue?
Clear globules which store fat.
Which enzyme breaks down fats during digestion?
Lipase.
What are proteins composed of?
Amino acids.
What links amino acids to form proteins?
Peptide bonds.
What are small proteins called?
Peptides.
What is protein necessary for?
Synthesis of hormones and enzymes.
Define enzymes.
Enzymes are proteins that catalyze most of the chemical reactions taking place in the body.
What are the two important nucleic acids in cells of the body?
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is found in the 46 chromosomes of the cell’s nucleus. Ribonucleic acid (RNA) is found in the nucleus and the cytoplasm of the cell.
What are genes composed of?
DNA and RNA.
What does DNA consist of?
Two long chains of nucleotides that twist to form a double helix.
What must happen before a cell divides?
The DNA must replicate itself through semi-conservative replication.
What are the two basic features of cells?
Prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
What is the largest cellular body found in the cytoplasm?
Globular protein.
What type of cell does not have a nucleus?
Prokaryotes.
What is the nucleus composed primarily of?
Histone protein and deoxyribonucleic acid.
How is DNA organized?
Into linear units called genes, which are functional segments of chromosomes.
What are the dense masses found in the nucleus and what do they contain?
Nucleoli are found in the nucleus and they contain ribonucleic acid.
What occurs in the mitochondria?
Cellular respiration.
What is required for ATP production?
Oxygen.
What is the plasma membrane also known as?
Cell membrane.
What is the composition of the plasma membrane?
Composed of protein and lipids, especially phospholipids.
Why is cholesterol needed by the plasma membrane?
Cholesterol is needed to stabilize the lipid in the membrane, making it less fluid.
How do cells recognize each other?
Glycolipids and glycoproteins on the outside of cells act as receptors for signaling molecules such as hormones.
What is an example of diffusion?
The movement of oxygen molecules from the air sacs of the lungs into red blood cells.
What is osmosis?
The diffusion of water molecules across a semi-permeable membrane from a region of low solute concentration to a region of high solute concentration.
What does the endoplasmic reticulum do?
Packages protein molecules for transport.
What do ribosomes contain?
Enzymes for intracellular digestion.
What does the Golgi body do?
Maintains the shape of the nucleus and controls the passage of materials between the nucleus and cytoplasm.
What is the function of mitochondria?
Where food energy is released and ATP is synthesized.
What is endocytosis?
When a solid particle such as a bacterium is surrounded by the plasma membrane of a white blood cell.
Give three examples of exocytosis.
- Secretion of hormones by the endocrine cells
- Release of neurotransmitters at the tip of the nerve cell
- Secretion of mucus by cells in various organs.
What is the difference between an exergonic and an endergonic reaction?
- Exergonic energy is released from a cell.
- Endergonic energy is obtained from another source and stored.
What are enzymes?
Proteins that spark chemical reactions while themselves remaining unchanged.
What can happen when an enzyme reaction occurs at high temperatures?
Denature.
What is a metabolic pathway?
A sequence of chemical reactions occurring in a cell.
What type of cell does not reproduce?
Red blood cells.
What occurs during mitosis?
The cell nucleus replicates and separates into two cells.
What is cytokinesis?
The process by which cytoplasm divides into separate cells.
How does ribonucleic acid act as a messenger?
Carries instructions from DNA into the cytoplasm where protein is synthesized.
What are the four basic types of tissue?
Epithelial tissues, connective tissues, muscle tissue, nervous tissue.
Where is epithelial tissue found?
Epithelial tissue covers the body and lines its cavities.
Name four functions of epithelial tissue.
Protecting the underlying tissues, preventing dehydration, resisting mechanical irritation, and protecting against toxic substances and trauma.
What is the difference between endocrine and exocrine glands?
Endocrine glands secrete hormones into the bloodstream (ductless), while exocrine glands secrete enzymes and other substances into ducts.
Where are mucus membranes found?
Exocrine glands.
What type of tissue provides support for the body?
Connective tissue.
Cells involved in immune responses are found in what type of connective tissue?
Lymphocytes.
What differentiates dense connective tissue from loose connective tissue?
Loose connective tissue is found in the skin, muscles, and beneath most epithelial linings, while dense connective tissue contains collagen and elastic fibers that are more closely packed together.
Name two places where dense connective tissue is found.
Tendon and ligaments.
What is the function of adipose tissue?
Protect and insulate against heat loss and function as storage for fat cells.
What is elastic connective tissue?
A firm, rubber-like supporting connective tissue.
What is the most common type of cartilage and where is it found?
Hyaline cartilage is found on the ends of long bones, the ears, fetal skeleton, nose, larynx, trachea, and bronchi.
Where is fibrous cartilage found?
In areas of the body that bear great weight.
What makes bone tissue stronger than cartilage?
It contains inorganic salts of calcium and phosphate and has rich blood supplies, while cartilage doesn’t have any blood supply.
What are osteocytes?
A mature osteoblast.
What is skeletal muscle?
Muscle tissue that contains microscopic bands.
What is the difference between a voluntary and an involuntary muscle?
Voluntary muscle moves with conscious effect, while involuntary moves without conscious effort.
What is visceral muscle also known as?
Smooth muscle.
Where is visceral muscle found?
In the lining of organs.
What are two characteristics of cardiac muscle?
Striated and involuntary muscle control.
What is the function of nervous tissue?
To communicate with the brain, receive stimuli, transport impulses, and interrupt nerve impulses.
What are sensory neurons?
Neurons that receive impulses from the environment.
What are interneurons?
Neurons that interpret the stimuli and prompt muscles and glands to respond via motor neurons.
What do the glands of the endocrine system secrete and promote?
Secrete hormones into the blood and promote homeostasis.
What biochemical and physiological changes are brought about by hormones?
Growth and development, promote water retention, induce development of male sex characteristics.
Name the two main types of hormones produced by the endocrine glands.
Nonsteroid hormones and steroid hormones.
What are the five steroid hormones?
Cortisol, cortisone, estrogen, progesterone, testosterone.
Name three classes of nonsteroid hormones.
Amines, peptides, proteins.
Insulin is an example of what type of hormone?
Protein hormone.
To what class of hormone do ADH and oxytocin belong?
Peptide hormone.
Name two examples of amine hormones and the glands that produce them.
Thyroxine from the thyroid gland and epinephrine from the adrenal gland.
What do steroid hormones dissolve in?
Phospholipids.
What enzyme is affected by hormones and what chemical conversion does it initiate?
Adenylyl cyclase, cAMP cyclic adenosine monophosphate.
What cellular changes are accelerated by cAMP?
Protein synthesis, altered membrane permeability, and enzyme activations.
What is the difference between the autocrine and paracrine effect?
Autocrine effect is when the hormone secreted by the endocrine glands acts on the cells of the glands producing it, while paracrine is when a hormone is produced and acts on neighboring cells.
Where is the pituitary gland located?
In the brain just behind the optic chiasma.
What hormones does the pituitary gland release?
Hormones produced by the hypothalamus.
Give two names for the hormone that acts on the kidney tubules and affects blood pressure.
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH), vasopressin.
What does the hormone oxytocin stimulate?
Stimulates uterine contractions and milk production.
How does the hypothalamus control the synthesis and release of hormones produced in the pituitary’s anterior lobe?
By secreting hormones and inhibiting hormones into the blood vessels leading to the pituitary gland.
What are the four hormones produced in the pituitary’s anterior lobe?
Human Growth hormone, thyroid stimulating hormone, adrenocorticotropic hormone, prolactin.
What is accelerated by human growth hormone (HGH)?
Accelerated body growth by stimulating the cellular uptake of amino acids and encouraging protein synthesis.
What results from inadequate secretion of HGH in childhood?
Dwarfism.
What results from oversecretion of HGH?
Gigantism.
What are the functions of TSH?
Stimulates uptake of iodine, controls synthesis and release of thyroid hormones.
What is the function of ACTH?
Influences growth tissue and stimulates secretion of hormones, glucocorticoids.
What does prolactin act on?
The mammary glands, where it stimulates the production of milk.
Which hormone acts on the ovaries and the testes?
Follicle stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone.
What is FSH?
Gonadotropin, one of the hormones that regulates the gonads (sex organs).
What is another gonadotropin?
Luteinizing hormone.
What does LH stimulate in women?
Stimulates production of progesterone by the ovaries.
What does LH stimulate in men?
Stimulates production of testosterone in the testes.
Where is the thyroid gland located?
Back of the neck near the larynx.
What three hormones are secreted by the thyroid?
Thyroxine, triiodothyronine, calcitonin.
Which hormones increase the rate of metabolism in body cells?
Thyroxine and triiodothyronine.
Which pituitary gland hormone regulates the synthesis of thyroxine and triiodothyronine?
Anterior pituitary gland.
What do thyroid hormones stimulate?
The activity of enzymes associated with the metabolism of glucose, increasing basal metabolic rate, oxygen consumption, and heat production.
What must be available in the diet to produce thyroxine and triiodothyronine?
Iodine.
How does a goiter form?
Lack of iodine in the body.
What disease is caused by an excess of thyroxine and triiodothyronine?
Graves disease.
What hormone is antagonistic to calcitonin?
Parathyroid hormone.
What does calcitonin do?
Lowers the blood calcium and increases the level of calcium in the bone.
What does parathyroid hormone do?
Increases the level of calcium in the blood by lowering calcium from the bones.
Where are the parathyroid glands located?
Posterior surface of the thyroid gland.
What does parathyroid hormone affect?
The activation of Vitamin D, which regulates the intestinal absorption of calcium.
Where is the pancreas located?
Beneath the stomach in the abdominal cavity.
What is the digestive function of the pancreas?
Producing digestive enzymes for the digestive process, producing insulin and glucagon.
What are the two hormones produced by the endocrine function of the pancreas?
Insulin and glucagon.
What activity does insulin promote?
Movement of glucose molecules into body cells.
What condition results when insulin is lacking in the body?
Diabetes mellitus.
What is the result when insufficient glucose enters the cells for metabolism?
Lack of energy, feeling tired.
What does glucagon stimulate?
Breakdown of glycogen in the liver.
What effect does insulin have on blood glucose levels?
Stimulates a decrease in the blood glucose level.
What effect does glucagon have on blood glucose levels?
Causes an increase in blood glucose.
Where are the adrenal glands located?
On the superior border of the kidneys.
What are the two portions of each adrenal gland?
The medulla and the cortex.
What do the hormones of the adrenal cortex regulate?
Mineral balance, energy balance, and reproductive functions.
What are the hormones of the adrenal cortex called?
Mineralocorticoids and glucocorticoids.
What is an example of a mineralocorticoid?
Aldosterone.
What are two names for an important glucocorticoid?
Cortisol and cortisone.
Name two electrolytes regulated by mineralocorticoids.
Sodium and potassium.
What is the secretion of mineralocorticoids dependent on?
Glucocorticoids.
What hormones affect the metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats?
Glucocorticoids.
Name two other functions of glucocorticoids.
Promote constriction of blood vessels and serve as an anti-inflammatory compound.
What is the full name and abbreviation of the pituitary gland hormone that regulates the secretion of glucocorticoids?
Steroid hormones.
What is produced in the cortex of the adrenal glands to supplement hormones from the gonads?
Steroid hormones.
Name two catecholamines that prepare the body for the ‘fight or flight’ response.
Epinephrine and norepinephrine.
What disease results from inadequate secretions of adrenal cortex hormones?
Addison disease.
Addison’s disease is accompanied by an imbalance of which two electrolytes?
Sodium and potassium.
What results from oversecretion of adrenal cortex hormones?
Cushing syndrome.
What do the ovaries secrete?
Cell clusters that influence the development of secondary sex characteristics of the female.
What hormones do the ovaries secrete?
Progesterone.
What hormones does the placenta secrete?
Estrogen and progesterone.
What do the testes secrete?
Testosterone and other androgens.
Which endocrine gland is located in the midbrain and what does it secrete?
Pineal gland: secretes melatonin.
What is the function of melatonin?
To regulate secretions of other hormones that affect the day-night cycle.
Which gland secretes hormones used for the maturation and development of immune system cells?
Thymus gland.
Name two secretions of the digestive endocrine glands.
Insulin and gastrin.
What are lipid hormones produced in the liver, kidney, heart, and lungs called?
Prostaglandins.
What function does the Endoplasmic reticulum have?
Protein and membrane synthesis
What function does the Ribosomes have?
Bodies where proteins are synthesized
What function does the Golgi body have?
Packages protein molecules for transport
What function does the Mitochondria have?
Where food energy is released and ATP is synthesized.
What function does Lysosomes have?
Contain enzymes for intracellular
digestion.
What function does Centrosome have?
Distributes chromosomes during cell reproduction.
What function does Cilia and flagella have?
Propel fluids over cellular surface and
enable certain cells to move.
What function does Vesicles have?
Contain substances being transported within the cell.
What function microfilaments and microtubules have?
Provide support to cytoplasm and help move objects within cytoplasm.
What Function do the nuclear envelope have?
Maintains shape of the nucleus and controls passage of materials between
What function does the Nucleolus have?
Contains materials to form ribosomes
What function does Chromatin have?
Contains genetic information for
protein synthesis
What function does the Cell membrane have?
Maintains shape of cell and controls passage of material in and out of cell
