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BIOL 214: Exam 1 > Levels of Organization > Flashcards

Levels of Organization Flashcards

1
Q

What are genes?

A
  • Sections of DNA that code for a particular trait
  • A specific sequence of nucleotides (nt) making up a DNA molecule
  • Nt sequence “codes” for a specific trait similar to how 1s and 0s can be used for analogical reasoning
  • Chromosomes are exceptionally long pieces of DNA that contain 100s and 1000s of genes
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2
Q

What’s in your genes?

A
  • Humans have ~22k genes composed of coding DNA
  • DNA is a polymer built of monomer subunits and is double-stranded and helical = “double helix”
  • DNA quantity varies considerably among species
    > Humans have ~3 billion base pairs (~3 Gbp)
    + Base pairs = nucleotides in one strand
    + That means we have 6 billion nucleotides total
    > Humans have 23 pairs (sets) of chromosomes
    + Diploid (2n) - inherit one set from each parent
    + 23 from mom + 23 from dad = 46 total
  • Also have mtDNA we inherit exclusively from mom
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3
Q

Character

A
  • A heritable feature (i.e. flower color)
  • Similar to phenotype (physical appearance)
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4
Q

Trait

A

A variant of a character (ie: purple flower)

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5
Q

Locus (loci)

A

A specific location on a chromosome where a gene is located

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6
Q

Alleles

A

Different versions of the same genre (blue eyes vs brown eyes)

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7
Q

Genotype

A

The genetic makeup of an organism (PP, Pp, or pp)

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8
Q

Alleles

A
  • alternative versions of the same gene
    > inherited characters that account for variation
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9
Q

Gregor Mendel

A
  • Austrian monk
  • Failed teaching exams
  • Sent to study various, random subjects, including botany and math
  • Documented a particular mechanism of inheritance (completed dominance) with experiments using common garden peas
  • Identified two fundamental laws of inheritance
    > independent assortment
    > segregation
  • discovered the basic principles of heredity
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10
Q

Mendel’s Experiments

A
  • Mendel manually cross-pollinated plants to control mating
  • Worked with thousands of plants over a period of eight years
  • Analyzed seven characteristics
    > seed shape and color
    > flower color and position
    > pod shape and color
    > stem length
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11
Q

Complete Dominance (aka Mendelian Inheritance)

A
  • Occurs when the phenotypes of the heterozygote and dominant homozygote are identical
    > presence of a single dominant allele produces FULL dominant phenotype
    + like purple pea flowers
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12
Q

Codominance

A
  • 2 dominant alleles affect the phenotype in separate, but distinguishable, ways
  • Human blood type
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13
Q

Incomplete Dominance

A
  • The phenotypes F_1 hybrids is somewhere between the phenotypes of the 2 parental varieties
  • 3 phenotypes are seen usually
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14
Q

Dominant and recessive alleles do not really “interact” which can lead to…

A

…synthesis of different proteins that produce a phenotype

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15
Q

Frequency of dominant alleles

A
  • are not necessarily more common than recessive alleles
    > is population dependent
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16
Q

Ecology

A
  • The study of the interactions between organisms and their biological and physical environment
  • Environment:
    > Biological = “biotic” or living things
    > Physical = “abiotic” or non-living things
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17
Q

Natural History and Life History

A

Observational study of plants and animals in their natural environment and their reproduction

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18
Q

Environmental science

A

The study of the impact of humans on the environment and human impacts on them

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19
Q

Resource Management Sciences

A
  • Management and husbandry (usually resources important for human use)
  • Wildlife management
  • Forestry
  • Range management
  • Fisheries biology
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20
Q

Life’s fundamental characteristic is having a […]

A

[high degree of order or organization]

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21
Q

Biological organization is based on a […]

A

[hierarchy of structural levels]

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22
Q

Novel properties emerge at each step upward in the […]

A

[biological hierarchy]
- A cell is more than a bag of molecules
- The whole is greater than the sum of its parts

23
Q

[…] often encompasses several levels of organization

A

[Ecology]

24
Q

Organismal Ecology

A

Interactions between individuals and their environment
- physiological ecology
- behavioral ecology

25
Q

Population Ecology

A

Dynamics of a group of individuals of a single species
- Population genetics, demography

26
Q

Community ecology

A

Interactions among groups of coexisting species

27
Q

Ecosystem ecology

A

Interactions between ecological communities and their abiotic environment

28
Q

Ecosphere or Biosphere

A

Sum of all Earth’s ecosystems

29
Q

Ecological Networks

A
  • Visual representation of interactions in an ecosystem
  • Species are represented by nodes
  • Connected by pairwise interactions (links)
  • Can get very complex, quickly
30
Q

[…] is key in ecology

A

[Interaction]

31
Q

Proximate Causes

A
  • Direct effects of external stimuli; direct, immediate causes
    > e.g. climate, temperature, and photoperiod (day length)
32
Q

Ultimate Causes

A
  • Evolutionary factors that led to appearance of certain traits
    > e.g. natural selective pressure from predation, sexual selection pressure by mate preference
33
Q

Ecology-Evolution Connection

A
  • Ecosystems are a product of evolution of species
  • Adaptation and evolutionary fitness drive selection pressure
34
Q

Ecological systems are often not in […]

A

[equilibrium]
- no “stable/permanent ecological homeostasis” or “balance of nature”
- both equilibrium and non-equilibrium ecological processes are important

35
Q

Ecology is a […] science

A

[quantitative]

36
Q

Evolution

A
  • Defined as a hypothesis that has been repeatedly tested and not yet falsified
  • Broad in scope and supported by a LARGE body of evidence
  • Universally accepted among scientists, however, they can still be disproven
  • Constantly being challenged, tested, and modified as new information as new information is obtained (and this is where their strengths are!)
37
Q

First Hypothesis: All present life is related through […] from a common ancestor in past evolution

A

[“descent with modification”]

38
Q

Second Hypothesis: […] (differential reproductive success) is an extremely important mechanism for evolution

A

[Natural selection]

39
Q

Observation: […] variation exists in most species

A

[Heritable]

40
Q

[…] is not THE only mechanism for evolution; however it was the first proposed and it is still the most explanatory hypothesis for why things change over time

A

[Natural selection]

41
Q

Observation: All species produce more […] than the environment can support, meaning many, many […] die before maturity

A

[offspring] [offspring]

42
Q

Inference #1: Differential reproductive success among individuals, those with “best” traits, help them […] and […] in their environment, thus, leave more offspring than others

A

[survive] [reproduce]

43
Q

Inference #2: Those heritable, favorable traits, called […], accumulate over time, matching the species to its current environment

A

[adaptation]

44
Q

Evolution via Natural Selection

A

Darwin (and Wallace) proposed natural selection as their mechanism for evolutionary adaptation of populations to their environment

45
Q

Mechanisms that change allele frequencies:

A
  • Genetic drift (or drift)
  • Mutations
  • Gene flow
  • Non-random mating
46
Q

Genetic Drift

A
  • Random, can simply be considered a sampling error
  • Change in frequencies resulting from a sharp decline or bottleneck in population size
  • Founder effect: when only a few individuals form a large population move to a new area
47
Q

Mutations

A
  • Novel alleles arise by mutations, or any change in a DNA
  • New “mutant” alleles change the frequencies in a population
  • Can be spontaneous or induced by mutagens
48
Q

Gene Flow

A
  • Involves the movement of alleles into or out of a population
  • Can be the movement of individual organisms or their gametes (egg/sperm, pollen)
  • Organisms and gametes that enter a population may have new alleles or may bring in existing alleles but in different proportions that those already in a population
  • Is usually a very strong mechanism of evolution
49
Q

Random Mating

A
  • For allele frequencies to stay the same, all alleles must have the same probability of entering the next generation
50
Q

Non-Random Mating

A
  • Can occur in two ways:
    > Assortative mating: preference for mates with similar genotypes or phenotypes
    > Disassortative mating: preferences for mates with different genotypes or phenotypes
51
Q

Genetic mutations lead to […] among individuals in a population (new alleles/combos)

A

[variation]

52
Q

Some individuals pass their […] on to their offspring

A

[alleles]

53
Q

In each generation, certain individuals are more […] at surviving AND reproducing

A

[“successful”]

54
Q

The individuals that are more “successful” at surviving AND reproducing have alleles/combos that confer adaptation to their […] environment

A

[current]

BIOL 214: Exam 1 (4 decks)

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