Level 2 Fitness Instructor Online Theory Flashcards
How many bones does the adult skeleton have?
206 (80 axial 126 appendicular).
Name the 5 regions of the spine and how many vertebrae are in each. (5)
7 cervical 12 thoracic 5 lumbar 5 fused sacral 4 fused coccygeal.
Describe kyphosis, why is happens and how to help.(3)
Hunch back, curvature of thoracic spine, men who neglect muscular balance at more risk, usually due to weak back extensor muscles or sitting at a desk
Ensure you train your back and be mindful of posture and form.
Describe lordosis, why is happens and how to help.(3)
Pot belly stance, curve of lumbar spine inwards, usually due to pregnancy pot bellies or weak torso muscles due to sedentary lifestyle
`Ensure abdominal training to correct lordosis.
Describe scoliosis, why is happens and how to help.(3)
Lateral deviation in spine, usually due to genetic factors but may also be due to uneven strain placed on one side of the body
Specialised program required to rebalance the spine, not easily corrected.
How many RBC and WBC does the bone marrow produce?(1)
60-70% WBC and all RBC and platelets.
What are the storage minerals in the bone?(3)
Bones serve as a storage area for mineral salts, especially calcium, magnesium phosphate and phosphorus. When required, minerals can be released into the blood to maintain mineral balance. A deficiency in these minerals can contribute to bones becoming weaker and brittle (a condition known as osteoporosis)
What happens with bone marrow (myeloid tissue) as we age?(3)
Bones store marrow (known as myeloid tissue), which is soft, gelatinous tissue that fills the cavities of the bones. 1)At birth and until about the age of seven, all human marrow is red, as the need for new blood formation is high.
2) Thereafter, fat tissue gradually replaces the red marrow.
3) In adults, red marrow is found only in the vertebrae, hips, breastbone (sternum), ribs and skull and at the ends of the long bones of the arm and leg; other cancellous or spongy bones and the central cavities of the long bones are filled with yellow marrow.
6 Functions of the skeleton.(6)
Structure/ Shape Movement Support Protection Storage Production.
6 bone types.(6)
- Long bones
- Short bones
- Sesamoid bones
- Sutural bones
- Irregular bones
- Flat bones
Long bones. (3)
- Longer than they are wide
- Function to support the weight of the body and facilitate movement
- Mostly located in the appendicular skeleton and include bones in the lower limbs (the tibia, fibula, femur, metatarsals and phalanges) and bones in the upper limbs (the humerus, radius, ulna, metacarpals and phalanges).
Short bones. (3)
- As long as they are wide (cube-shaped)
- Provide stability and some movement
- Located in the wrist and ankle joints: the carpals in the wrist (scaphoid, lunate, triquetrum, hamate, pisiform, capitate, trapezoid and trapezium) and the tarsals in the ankles (calcaneus, talus, navicular, cuboid, lateral cuneiform, intermediate cuneiform and medial cuneiform).
Flat bones. (3)
- Somewhat flattened and can provide protection, like a shield; flat bones can also provide large areas of attachment for muscles
- Function to protect internal organs such as the brain, heart and pelvic organs
- Located in the skull (occipital, parietal, frontal, nasal, lacrimal and vomer), the thoracic cage (sternum and ribs and the scapulae) and the pelvis (ilium, ischium and pubis).
Sesamoid bones. (4)
- Bones that are embedded in tendons
- Typically small, round bones
- Function to protect tendons from stress and wear
- Located in the tendons of the hands, knees and feet. The patella (commonly referred to as the kneecap) is an example of a sesamoid bone.
Irregular bones. (2)
- Vary in shape and structure and therefore do not fit into any other category (flat, short, long or sesamoid)
- They often have a fairly complex shape, which helps to protect internal organs, for example, the facial bones. The vertebrae (irregular bones of the vertebral column) protect the spinal cord.
Major advantage to cancellous/trabecular bone.(1)
A major advantage to the honeycomb structure of bone is that it can be strong for only a small amount of material, which helps to make it light (important, so that humans do not expend too much energy to move around).
Give 2 examples of how bone function effects its structure. (2)
Vertebrae: subject to primarily compressive or tensile forces; usually have thin cortices and provide necessary structural rigidity through trabeculae
Femurs: subject to prominent bending, shear or torsional forces; usually have thick cortices, a tubular configuration and a continuous cavity running through their centres (medullary cavity).
Long bone anatomy components. (12)
- Epiphysis: the expanded portion at each end of the bone
- Epiphyseal growth plate: the cartilaginous region where growth in the length of the bone occurs
- Diaphysis: the shaft of the bone
- Metaphysis: the wide portion between the epiphysis and the narrow diaphysis. It contains the growth plate – the part of the bone that grows during childhood
- Articular hyaline cartilage: covers the bone ends
- Periosteum: a tough, fibrous fascial sheath covering the whole bone
- Compact / cortical bone: solid, strong and resistant to bending
- Cancellous / trabecular bone: gives the bone elastic strength to resist compression forces
- Medullary cavity: the hollow cavity down the centre of the compact bone
- Endosteum: the membrane that lines the cavity
- Red or yellow marrow: produces blood cells or stores fat, respectively
- Blood vessels: in a typical long bone, blood is supplied by three routes: i) an artery to the diaphysis and metaphysis, ii) an artery to the periosteum and outer cortical bone, and iii) an artery to the epiphysis and cartilage.
Name the 3 types of joint.(3)
Fibrous, cartilaginous, synovial.
Structure and function of fibrous joint, give an example.(3)
- Bones held together by fibrous connective tissue (no synovial cavity or fluid)
- Immovable joint
- Sutures between the cranial bones of the skull. Syndesmoses between the tibia and fibula (fibrous but slightly movable). Gomphoses between the roots of the teeth.
Structure and function of cartilaginous joint, give an example.(3)
- Bones held together by cartilage (no synovial cavity or fluid)
- Slightly movable joint
- Sternocostal joint of the first rib and sternum (cartilaginous but immovable - hyaline cartilage). Epiphyseal plate between the diaphysis and epiphysis of growing bones (cartilaginous but immovable - hyaline cartilage). Pubic symphysis between the anterior surfaces of hip bones (cartilaginous but slightly movable and connected by fibrocartilage disc). Intervertebral discs between vertebrae (cartilaginous but slightly movable and connected by a fibrocartilage disc). Sacrococcygeal joint between the sacrum and coccyx (cartilaginous but slightly movable and connected by fibrocartilage disc cartilage).
Structure and function of synovial joint, give an example.(3)
-Joint contains a synovial cavity containing fluid secreted by the synovial membrane. Bones forming the joint are surrounded by an articular capsule
-Freely movable joint
-6 types:
Hinge
Ball and socket
Pivot
Gliding or plane
Saddle
Condyloid / ellipsoid.
Name the 6 types of synovial joint.(6)
Hinge Ball and socket Pivot Gliding or plane Saddle Condyloid / ellipsoid.
Give examples of hinge joints in the body.(1)
The joints between the bones of the fingers (phalanges) and that between the ulna (inner bone of the forearm) and the humerus at the elbow, along with that between the femur and tibia, are all classic examples.
Give examples of ball&socket joints in the body.(1)
It is most highly developed in the large hip and shoulder joints of mammals, including humans, in which it provides swing for the arms and legs in various directions and also spin of those limbs upon the more-stationary bones (e.g. at the shoulder and hip joints).
Give examples of ellipsoid/condyloid joints in the body.(1)
The joint between the second metacarpal and the first phalanx of the second finger is a good example. It allows the finger to flex and extend, to swing towards or away from its neighbouring finger, and to swing forward with a slight amount of rotation. A further example is the joint between the radius and the carpus (the radiocarpal joint).
Give examples of pivot joints in the body.(1)
The pivot joint is exemplified by the joint between the atlas and the axis (the first and second cervical vertebrae), directly under the skull, which allows turning of the head side to side. Pivot joints also provide for the twisting movement of the bones of the forearm (radius and ulna) against the upper arm – a movement used, for instance, in unscrewing the lid of a jar.
Give examples of saddle joints in the body.(1)
An example of a saddle joint is the carpometacarpal (base) joint of the thumb. The thumb can be swung from side to side or from behind to forward, but the most frequent movement is that in which the thumb swings so that it comes ‘face to face’ with one or another of the fingers, as in grasping a needle or a ball. This movement is called opposition (i.e. of thumb to fingers). During opposition, the thumb is rotated around its long axis; it has been said that human civilisation depends upon the opposition of the thumb!
Give examples of gliding/plane joints in the body.(1)
Examples are the joints between the metacarpal bones of the hand and those between the cuneiform (tarsal) bones of the foot, along with the joint formed between the clavicle and the scapula (the acromioclavicular joint).
3 main categories for connective tissue (fascial web).(3)
Cartilage
Ligaments
Tendons
Recent evidence shows this is innervated.
3 types of cartilage.(3)
Hyaline (articular) cartilage-most common
elastic
fibrocartilage.
Hyaline (articular) cartilage.(5)
Is the most common type
Is tough, smooth and thin
Is blue-white in colour
Is found covering bone ends to form joints
Becomes slippery when lubricated with synovial fluid, thus reducing friction and allowing optimal joint movement.
Elastic cartilage.(5)
Has a structure similar to hyaline cartilage
Has more fibres than hyaline cartilage
Has most of its fibres made up of elastin as opposed to collagen
Has the ability to spring back into shape immediately due to the properties of elastin
Can be found in the ear, the walls of the Eustachian tube (the tube that runs from the middle ear to the pharynx) and the epiglottis – all places that require maintenance of a specific shape.
Fibrocartilage.(3)
Fibrocartilage is thicker and stronger than the other two forms of cartilage and has limited distribution within the body.
It forms various shapes according to its role and it acts as a shock absorber in cartilaginous joints,
such as the meniscus in the knee and between the intervertebral discs.
4 main functions of ligaments.(4)
- To connect bone to bone
- To enhance joint stability
- To guide joint motion
- To prevent excessive motion in the joint.
Ligaments are tough, white, non-elastic fibrous tissue, strung together in a cord- or strap-like formation. They attach bone to bone in all joints, thus providing joint stability and allowing normal movement but preventing unwanted movement. For example, the hip joints have seven thick, strong, short ligaments each to give joint stability. They will withstand tension, but prolonged tension will permanently damage the fibres.
Difference between ligaments and tendons?(1)
Tendons are similar to ligaments but play a different role in the body. Their functions include attaching muscle to bone and transmitting the force produced by the muscle. The layers of fasciae that run through the muscle become the tendon as they envelope the muscle and become continuous with the periosteum of the bone.
Give 2 examples of the short term effects of exercise on the bones.(2)
Direct- Smoother joint articulation due to secretion of synovial fluid, increase temp from movement lessens viscosity of fluid=easier to move
Indirectly-Through other tissues eg fascia allowing for better control (accuracy) and stability in extremes of the ROM.
Give 1 long term effect of exercise on bones.(1)
Long term, the condition of bone may be improved by exercise as it responds to mechanical stresses. These mechanical stresses usually take the form of skeletal muscles pulling at their points of attachment (their origin (where the muscle starts) and their insertion (where the muscle ends)). It has been shown that more mineral salts are deposited and more collagenous fibres are produced where these mechanical stresses are applied most frequently. Therefore, both the density and size of bone in these areas may be increased, and these changes in bone structure are stimulated by increased loads being placed on the skeleton. This has been borne out by greater bone mass being observed in weightlifters than in lighter endurance athletes such as joggers. Other examples include racquet players, who have been shown to have greater bone density in their playing arms. It has been shown that if a leg is immobilised by being placed in a cast, after only a few weeks, the bone density becomes greatly affected by the lack of mechanical stress.
Good exercises for those at risk of osteoporosis. (1)
An appropriate form of exercise prescription for improving bone density is loading the bone end to end (compressive forces). This means the resistance should load the bone along the shaft; for example, a shoulder press places the load so that it travels down the shaft of the ulna and humerus, whereas a lateral raise will not load the bone end-to-end.
Give 4 examples of end-to-end vs non-end-to-end loading exercises.(4)
Chest presses vs. flat bench flies
Running and aerobics vs. leg curls and leg extensions
Push-ups / press-ups vs. pullovers
Back squats vs. hip / glute bridges.
What is the anatomical position.(1)
Stood up palms facing in the direction of the body/face.
Flexion.(1)
Flexion is a decrease in the angle between the anterior surfaces of the articulating bones. Exceptions to this are the knee and toe joints, where there is a decrease in the angle between the posterior surfaces of the articulating bones. eg elbow flexion in a bicep curl is moving the hand (bending) from anatomical up to the curl.
Extension.(1)
Extension is an increase in the angle between the anterior surfaces of the articulating bones. Exceptions to this are the knee and the toe joints, where there is an increase in the angle between the posterior surfaces of the articulating bones. eg following flexion for a bicep curl returning back to the anatomical position would be extension.
Lateral flexion/extension.(2)
Lateral flexion is a decrease in the angle between the lateral surfaces of the articulating bones of the vertebrae. This occurs in the spine only, when leaning to one side.
Lateral extension is an increase in the angle between the lateral surfaces of the articulating bones of the vertebrae. This occurs in the spine only, when leaning to one side.
Dorsiflexion.(2)
Dorsiflexion describes a specific movement of the foot / ankle. Dorsiflexion refers to ‘dorsal’ and ‘flexion’. Dorsal describes the back or upper side of body part (think of the dorsal fin of a dolphin).
Dorsiflexion represents a decrease in the angle between the anterior surfaces of the metatarsals and the tibia (shin). The action is flexing the foot upwards or moving the knee forwards over the fixed foot (e.g. squatting).
Plantar flexion.(2)
Plantar flexion is actually an extension of the ankle joint but is referred to as plantar flexion. In humans the sole of the foot is anatomically referred to as the plantar surface. It is an increase in the angle between the anterior surfaces of the metatarsals and the tibia (shin). The action is pointing your toes or standing upright from a deep squat position
Inversion/eversion.(2)
Inversion - is the movement where the sole of the foot is turned medially or inward. This results from the inward swing of the calcaneus (ankle)
Eversion - is the movement where the sole of the foot is turned laterally or outward. This results from the outward swing of the calcaneus. (ankle)
Hyperextension.(2)
Hyperextension is an increase in the angle between the anterior surfaces of the articulating bones where the joint moves past the anatomically neutral (and structurally safe) zone.
As an example, extension hypermobility might be seen at the elbow joint or a specific region of the spine. Excess motion may create uneven stresses to the structures in that area with potential degeneration and pain.
Abduction/adduction.(2)
Abduction is something moving away from midline of the body, adduction is moving towards the midline of the body.
Opposition.(1)
Opposition is where you bring the tip of the thumb across to the tip of each finger.
Depression/elevation.(2)
Depression is where we pull a joint down or return from elevation. A common example is ‘setting’ the shoulders down when performing a pulling exercise from overhead.
Elevation is where we raise a joint - for example shrugging the shoulders upwards during a high row exercise.
Supination/pronation.(2)
Supination – a movement of the forearm where the palm is turned anteriorly or superiorly (this movement is best shown with the elbow flexed; otherwise, the motion is likely to be derived from shoulder external rotation).
Pronation – a movement of the forearm where the palm is turned posteriorly or inferiorly (this movement is best shown with the elbow flexed; otherwise, the motion is likely to be derived from shoulder internal rotation).
Protraction/retraction.(2)
Protraction - moving a part forward (sliding the shoulders forward).
Retraction - moving a part backward (sliding the shoulders backward).
Circumduction.(1)
Circumduction – movement where the distal end of a bone moves in a circle whilst the proximal end remains still. It is important to note that this is not rotation.
Medial/lateral rotation.(2)
Medial (or Internal) Rotation is where the anterior surface of the bone or limb rotates towards the midline of the body.
Lateral (or External) Rotation is where the anterior surface of the bone or limb rotates away from the midline of the body.
Horizontal extension/abduction vs flexion/adduction.(2)
Horizontal extension / abduction is an increase in the angle between the anterior surfaces of the articulating bones, in the horizontal or transverse plane. This action occurs when you start with your arms at shoulder height directly in front of you and then move your hands away from each other while keeping your arms at shoulder height. This is referred to as horizontal extension / abduction of the shoulder joint.
Horizontal flexion / adduction is a decrease in the angle between the anterior surfaces of the articulating bones, in the horizontal or transverse plane. This action occurs when you start with your arms at shoulder height horizontally and then move your hands towards each other while keeping your arms at shoulder height. This is referred to as horizontal flexion / adduction of the shoulder joint.
Shoulder joint.(1)
Ball and socket
Most movements:
flexion, extension, adduction, abduction, internal / medial and external / lateral rotation, circumduction, horizontal flexion and horizontal extension.
Radio ulnar joints.(2)
Both pivot joints responsible from pronation and supination.
Proximal radio ulnar joint-this is located near the elbow and is an articulation between the head of the radius and the radial notch of the ulna
Distal radio ulnar joint- this is located near the wrist and is an articulation between the ulnar notch of the radius and the ulnar head.
Wrist joint.(1)
Condyloid
therefore allows flexion/extension, adduction/abduction.
Metacarpophalangeal joints.(1)
The metacarpophalangeal joint is a condyloid (or ellipsoid) joint.
Joint actions: flexion, extension, abduction, adduction (where the middle finger is the midline of the hand) and circumduction.
The first carpometacarpal joint.(1)
`Thumb joint is a saddle joint
Joint actions: flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, opposition and reposition.
Interphalangeal joints.(1)
Uniaxial hinge joints which allow for flexion/extension.
Intervertebral joints/spinal column.(1)
Allows collectively for:
flexion, extension, hyperextension, lateral flexion and rotation.
