Lessons 01 - 06

Question 1

Evolutionary explanations of sexual attraction
Sexual Selection

Answer 1

Selecting a mate because of the characteristics they possess which might be advantageous in human reproductive behaviour (e.g. IQ)

Question 2

Evolutionary explanations of sexual attraction
Anisogamy

Answer 2

Sexual reproduction in which the gametes of the two sexes are dissimilar

Question 3

Females and Sexual Selection

Answer 3

Females are choosy, because eggs are rare (one a month), which requires a great deal of time (pregnancy), energy and investment.
Females select a male who is genetically fit, strong, healthy, attractive, wealthy and has good resources, so they can look after her and the children.
The ‘Sexy Sons hypothesis’ states that females would like their sons to inherit those attractive traits.
Females may ‘test out’ males to ensure they will invest in the relationship

Question 4

Males and Sexual Selection

Answer 4

Males are less choosy, they produce millions of sperm in a short period of time), and sexually select many females to reproduce with = higher chance of reproducing lots of offspring.
Males select females who are young, healthy and attractive (small waist, curvy hips, large breasts).
These traits can indicate fertility, and males would like their children to also be good looking.
Males will make sure they appear big and strong, as it gives them an ‘advantage’. They might also engage in ‘mate guarding’, where they guard their female partner to prevent them from mating with others, as they are very fearful of the female getting pregnant and having to raise another man’s baby (‘cuckoldry’)

Question 5

Evaluation of evolutionary explanations of sexual attraction

Answer 5

(-) Assumption that everyone who selects a partner is heterosexual and can reproduce. Schwarz argues that we need to consider homosexual couples or people who cannot reproduce, as they must have other reasons to form relationships.
(+) Dunbar (2000) found that childless males tend to be shorter than males who have children. Suggests females prefer to reproduce with taller men, so their children will be tall (survival of the fittest)
(+) Singh (2002) found that waist to hip ratio was the most attractive feature to men (0:7), a sign of fertility
(-) Can cause problems in a relationship. If males need to be ‘big’, it could be an excuse for them to abuse their power and justify being aggressive and possessive, which could lead to domestic violence

Question 6

Buss (1989) study on sexual selection

Answer 6

Investigated what males and females look for in a long term partner. 10,000 participants over 37 cultures. They had to rate 18 characteristics using a 4 point scale.
Findings: females desired males with good financial prospects, resources and ambition. Males desired females with reproductive value, who were fertile and who were youthful. Both sexes wanted a partner who was intelligent and kind
Support for evolutionary explanations for partner preferences.

Question 7

Evaluation of Buss’ study

Answer 7

(-) Buller (2005) questions the idea that women universally want a rich man. Most studies have used females with good education high incomes, so they might seek someone of the same level.
(+) Buss’ research was conducted cross-culturally, meaning the findings are universal
(+) Dunbar (1999) found that older women try to look younger and disguise their age in order to seem more fertile, so men will be more attracted (plastic surgery, botox, teeth whitening)

Question 8

Self-Disclosure

Answer 8

The revealing of personal, intimate thoughts, feelings and information about ourselves to another person. Occurs when there is sufficient trust.
People tend to reveal more personal information to people that they like. People who disclose are seen as likeable, kind and trustworthy.
Reciprocal self-disclosure: people expect the same level of self-disclosure from others as they actually give. The more someone gives, the more they expect back

Question 8

Factors affecting the success of self-disclosure and attraction

Answer 8

• Appropriateness: self-disclosure may not always be appropriate e.g. on a first date
• Attributions for self-disclosure: the reasons why someone is self-disclosing
• Gender differences: we might expect females to self-disclose more, and when a male does, it is seen as rewarding as he trusts us.
• Content: highly intimate information may be seen as inappropriate, decreasing attraction levels.
  Attraction is highest when self-disclosure is at a medium level and balanced.

Question 9

Evaluation of self-disclosure

Answer 9

(+) Research supports this, as Altman and Taylor (1973) found that self-disclosure on the first date can be inappropriate and did not increase attraction levels.
(+) Kito (2010) investigated Japanese and American students and found that self-disclosure was high in heterosexual relationships, cross-cultural
(-) Sprecher (2013) stated that the most important factor is the amount self-disclosure a person receives, rather than what they give. This goes against the idea of reciprocal self-disclosure.
(-) Unlikely that attraction is reliant on self-disclosure alone. Other factors must be needed e.g. physical attraction, similarities
(-) Cooper (1997) devised the ‘Boom or Bust’ theory, whereby people on the internet self-disclose earlier than they would in real life. The relationship could either get really intense (boom) or might be difficult to sustain (bust)
(+) Tal-Or (2015) found that in reality TV shows, contestants who self-disclosed early on in the whole are liked, but the audience preferred the contestants who self-disclosed gradually; this mirrors real life relationships

Question 10

Self-disclosure study by Sprecher (2013)

Answer 10

Investigated whether reciprocal or one sided (listening) self-disclosure was more important. 156 undergraduates, put in pairs (66% female-female, 33% male-female). On Skype, two groups (one of each self-disclosure). After, the participants were assessed and the findings show that reciprocal self-disclosure (taking turns) leads to more liking and enjoyment, therefore is very important in terms of attraction

Question 11

Evaluation of Self-disclosure study by Sprecher (2013)

Answer 11

(-) Measured using Skype rather than direct face-to-face communication. May distort the quality of self-disclosure, so may not be good evidence
(-) Only conducted in America, culturally biased and does not have cross cultural validity. Self-disclosure may be different in eastern cultures
(+) Can be supported by Altman and Taylor’s theory about reciprocal self-disclosure (equal). Also supported by the equity theory, that says successful relationships are fair and equal
(-) Did not assess male-male relationships. By looking at this as well, Sprecher could have compared self-disclosure amongst different genders. Sample is also biased as 66% were female-female. If the sample was equal, it would’ve given a broader view of self-disclosure.

Question 12

Physical attractiveness
(men v women)

Answer 12

Men put a great deal of importance on physical attractiveness in the short term and long term. They look for glossy hair, big eyes, small nose and reproductive value. Females find it important in the short term, less so in the long term. They look for strong big males with facial symmetry as this indicates genetic fitness

Question 13

Physical attractiveness and the halo effect

Answer 13

Individuals who are physically attractive are often universally seen as sociable, optimistic, successful and trustworthy.
The halo effect is an impression that is incorrectly formed from physical attractiveness. People act positively to physically attractive people, so that person behaves more positively. This is why they are more desired as dates.

Question 14

Evaluation of the halo effect

Answer 14

(+) Palmer and Peterson (2012) found that physically attractive people were rated as more politically knowledgeable and competent. The implications can be applied to political processes, there might be dangers if politicians are judged as suitable for office based on their looks
(+) Has support because it does not only apply to romantic relationships, it applies to friendships, job interviews etc.
(-) Towhey asked participants to rate looks, and also to take a MACHO test which measures sexist attitudes. Those who had high MACHO test scores were more influenced by looks. Therefore the influence of physical attractiveness can be moderated by other factors
(+) Cunningham found that female features of large eyes, small nose, prominent cheekbones are more attractive to white, asian and hispanic males. Kim found that USA and Korean students judged physically attractive people to be trustworthy. The stereotypes are strong in both collectivist and individualist cultures

Question 15

The Matching hypothesis

Answer 15

Individuals seek partners that have the same social desirability as themselves. First, people assess their own attractiveness from the POV of a potential partner. Then they select the best candidate who would be attracted to them. If they are ‘in their league’ then it would be successful.
Preferences: to be with someone physically attractive.
Realistic choices: People approach other people who are similar in levels to attraction
Reality: Most people settle for someone ‘in their league’

Question 16

Evaluation of the matching hypothesis

Answer 16

(-) Complex matching: where a physically attractive person forms a relationship with an unattractive person. Usually, the unattractive person has other traits to make up for it
(+) Data from correlational studies by Murstein and Silverman (1972) support this and found it is very important when forming a relationship. Seems to be the case in experiments and real life
(+) Cavior (1972) found supporting evidence in long term couples rather than short term couples. Couples who were engaged, married or in long term relationships seem to follow the matching hypothesis
(-) Taylor (2011) studied the activity of online dating. Online daters wanted partners who were more physically attractive than them and did not consider their own level of attractiveness. This contradicts the matching hypothesis.

Question 17

Matching hypothesis study by Walster and Walster

Answer 17

177 male and 170 female students. Had to fill out a questionnaire about IQ and were told they were allocated an ideal partner, but the pairings were done randomly and everyone was judged on their physical attractiveness by 4 independent judges. 6 months later, a questionnaire was given, asking if the person would like to see their date agin.
This showed a lack of support for the matching hypothesis, as the conclusion was that people will often ‘aim higher’ in terms of physical attractiveness

Question 18

The Filter theory by Kerckhoff and Davis

Answer 18

They said there were ‘filtering factors’ that help a person choose the best fit partner for them.
1) Social demography: social characteristics (e.g. age, ethnicity, social background, geological location). We are more likely to meet someone from our own social and educational groups. Similar social demography may mean we feel more at ease with a person and find them more attractive.
2) Similarity in attitudes: psychological characteristics (e.g. same attitudes, beliefs, values). Can help predict stability. Partners with different values are not seen as suitable
3) Complementarity of needs: emotional characteristics. Different needs that complement each other (e.g. someone who needs to be cared for, someone who likes to care for others, or one listener, one talker). Needs should be complementary and not similar. Long term relationships are successful when needs of partners are harmonious and not conflicting

Question 19

Evaluation of Filter theory

Answer 19

(-) Failed to replicate findings. Levinger found no evidence that similarity of attitudes or complementarity of needs are important. Also a problem on deciding when a short term relationship becomes a long term relationship. Kerckhoff and Davis say 18 months
(-) Criticised as it suggests people are attracted because of similar demography and social characteristics, but Anderson (2003) said cohabiting partners became more similar over time and this increased attraction (this is called ‘emotional convergence’)
(+) Taylor (2010) found that 85% of Americans who got married in 2008 married someone from their own ethnic group, supporting the idea of social demography
(+) Hoyle (1993) found that perceived attitude similarity can predict attraction more strongly than actual attitude similarity.
(-) Online dating shows a lack of support. The internet means it is now easier to meet people who live far away, or who have different social demography. This is very apparent now, compared to 30 years ago.

Question 20

Filter theory study by Kerckhoff and Davis

Answer 20

Longitudinal study with 94 USA couples. Filled in two questionnaires to assess the degree of shared attitudes, values and complementarity of needs. Findings were that short term partners (less than 18 months) found similarity of attitudes and values were important. Long terms couples (more than 18 months) relied on complementarity of needs.
Long term and short term couples rely on different filters to predict closeness and attraction

Question 21

Evaluation of the filter theory study by Kerckhoff and Davis

Answer 21

(+) Longitudinal study = long time period = beneficial as it can test the filter theory in the short term and the long term, and offers strong support about the filters
(+) Highlights how different filters have more prominence at different stages of the relationships (similarity of attitudes is important for short term, complementarity of needs is important for long term)
(-) Similarities in relationships may not be as important for everybody. Individual differences may mean that some people are attracted to people who are a different ethnicity etc. (the concept of ‘opposites attract’ would oppose the study)
(-) Use of questionnaires can be criticised. May not be adequate to collect high quality data. Participants may lie (social desirability bias), so the responses are not valid

Question 22

Social Exchange Theory

Answer 22

The idea that relationships are ‘like a business’, where we monitor rewards, costs and profit, and look for better deals elsewhere.
Everyone views a relationship in terms of rewards and costs, and the more rewards, the higher the chance of success. We all want the maximum rewards and minimum costs.
Reward minus costs should have a positive outcome for the relationship to be successful
People can negotiate with partners to get what they want (emotional manipulation (silent treatment, crying), sexual power, compliments and gifts)

Question 23

Comparison Levels (CL)

Answer 23

A reference level, where we examine our present relationship to previous relationships, and compare in terms of rewards and costs. The present relationship should have higher rewards and less costs to be successful.
Advantages: can save you from red flags, you know what you want
Disadvantages: self-sabotage, can harm current relationship, people are not comparable

Question 24

Comparison Level for Alternatives (CL.alt)

Answer 24

People compare their present partner with people around them (from their social groups). If they think their present partner offers higher rewards and lower costs, then the relationship is likely to be successful.

Question 25

Evaluation for the social exchange theory and comparison levels

Answer 25

(-) Argyle challenges the social exchange theory and says that people only monitor the rewards and costs when the relationship has become dissatisfying.
(+) Gottman (1992) supports, as he found that unsuccessful marriages have a lack of positive behaviour exchanges. In successful marriages, the ratio of positive:negative exchanges is 5:1, in unsuccessful its 1:1
(-) Littlejohn (1989) found that it might be very difficult to determine what is a reward and what is a cost as this might differ between people (e.g. having a child might be both a cost and a reward)
(-) Moghaddam (1998) found that the social exchange theory is more applicable to western, individualistic cultures, and it might be different to other cultures. Rewards and costs ay not be important, but rather family values and compatibility.
(-) Much of the research is only focused on short term couples. The limited sample means the results may be invalid and cannot be applied to long term relationships

Question 26

Research on the social exchange theory by Kurdek and Schmitt (1986)

Answer 26

Investigates 4 types of couples: married heterosexual, cohabiting heterosexual, same sex male, same sex female. Each couple lived together and had no children. All answered a questionnaire.
Greatest relationship satisfaction was found when there were many rewards from their current relationship compared to previous (CL), and there were not many alternatives for them to compare to (CL.alt)
For both heterosexual and homosexual couples, the same factors can predict satisfaction in a relationship.

Question 27

Evaluation on the research on the social exchange theory

Answer 27

(+) Examines a range of relationships (homosexual and heterosexual). Emphasises how relationships operate in general
(+) Is an ‘Economic theory’, so gains support from ‘The Equity Theory’ by Hatfield and Walster. Both view relationships as a business with rewards and costs
(+) Supported by the cognitive approach (couples think about rewards and compare to previous relationships to see if they’re getting a ‘good deal’). Supported by the behavioural approach (if there are high rewards, operant conditioning may occur)
(-) Questionnaires lack validity as they are prone to social desirability bias and lying. It would have been best if Kurdek used questionnaires and interviews
(-) ‘Rewards’ needs to be operationalised. It may also be difficult to compare rewards, as some may be more important to different people. Kurdek should have investigated the quality of rewards, rather than the quantity to add some more validity to the study.