Lessons 01 - 03

Question 1

Gender Bias Definition

Answer 1

The differential treatment or representation of males and females, based on stereotypes and not real differences

Question 2

Alpha Bias Definition

Answer 2

Theories/studies that overestimate or exaggerate the differences between males and females

Question 3

Beta Bias Definition

Answer 3

Theories/studies that ignore/minimise the differences between males and females. Usually assume that findings from male studies can be generalised

Question 4

Androcentrism Definition

Answer 4

Theories that are centred around males. The belief that men’s behaviour represents the norm

Question 5

Universality Definition (Gender Bias)

Answer 5

Believing that some behaviour are the same for both genders

Question 6

What is Gender Bias in psychology?

Answer 6

Anatomically, men and women are different.
Some psychologists believe that differences within genders are much greater than differences between genders.
Examples of differences between genders: girls have greater verbal ability, boys have greater visual and spatial abilities, boys have greater arithmetical ability, girls are less aggressive than boys

Question 7

Alpha Bias Example

Answer 7

Example: Freud argued that girls do not suffer the same oedipal complex as boys, so do not identify with their mothers, so develop weaker superegos.

Question 8

Beta Bias Examples

Answer 8

Studies that generalise findings to the wider population even though the sample was only one gender.
In experiments, men and women might behave differently, but because of differential treatment. Rosenthal (1966) found that male experimenters were more pleasant with female participants than males.
Fight or flight was generalised, however now it has been found that women are more likely to tend and befriend

Question 9

Androcentrism Examples

Answer 9

Being centred on the male viewpoint, either consciously or unconsciously. Most past psychologists were male, so theories tended to represent the male viewpoint. Both alpha and beta bias are consequences of androcentrism.
From a list of the 100 most influential psychologists, only 6 were female

Question 10

Evaluation of Gender Bias

Answer 10

(+) One way to reduce gender bias is to develop a greater understanding. Some psychologists have developed theories to emphasise the importance of women. This type of research helps to reduce or challenge stereotypes
(+/-) Another way is to take a feminist approach, to try to restore the imbalance in theories/research. But this can also be biased (radicals).
(+/-) Greater understanding can lead to alternative methods of inquiry. Men do better in lab settings, so it is unfair. But is it fair to use different methods?

• Usually goes unchallenged. Views have only recently started to be challenged
• Carol Gilligan said that men and women are different (which is a fact) but that does not necessarily mean one is better than the other
• Gender bias can work against men too (alpha bias towards women) e.g. women are more likely to be diagnosed with depression and treated than males.

Question 11

Culture Definition

Answer 11

The norms, values, beliefs and patterns of behaviour shared by a group of people

Question 12

Culture Bias Definition

Answer 12

The tendency to judge people in terms of one’s own cultural assumptions

Question 13

Ethnocentrism Definition

Answer 13

Seeing the world only from one’s own cultural perspective, and believing that this perspective is normal and correct. May also think their perspective is superior

Question 14

Cultural Relativism Definition

Answer 14

The idea that a behaviour can only be properly understood in the context of the norms and values of the society or culture in which it occurs

Question 15

Universality Definition (Culture Bias)

Answer 15

Theory that can apply to all people regardless of culture

Question 16

Culture Bias in psychology

Answer 16

Historically, psychology has been dominated by white, middle-class, American males, as both psychologists and participants. Findings and theories have been generalised.

Question 17

Ethnocentrism in psychology

Answer 17

Often an inadvertent lack of awareness.
Example: African-Caribbeans in Britain are sometimes diagnosed as mentally ill based on behaviour that is perfectly normal in their subculture. This is due to ignorance of their subculture from white psychologists
Example: Ainsworth’s Strange Situation: German children seemed to show more insecure-avoidant behaviour, however, this is because German mothers value independence.
An ‘etic’ approach looks at behaviour from the outside of the culture
An ‘emic’ approach looks at behaviour from the inside of the culture

Question 18

Cultural Relativism

Answer 18

Insists that behaviour can only be properly understood when cultural context is taken into consideration, therefore studies cannot generalise findings to other cultures.
The meaning of intelligence is different in every culture. For example, the use of a bow and arrow may be important for some cultures, but not for societies in cities etc.

Question 19

Evaluation of Culture Bias

Answer 19

(-) Can have significant real-world effects, such as amplifying damaging stereotypes. Example: in WWI, the US used an IQ test, but it was biased towards white people. This put African-Americans at the bottom of the scale, having a negative impact on attitudes towards them.
(+) A way to deal with it is to recognise it when it occurs. It was found that European textbooks on social psychology were mostly American, suggesting research is severely unrepresentative and can be improved by selecting different cultures to study.
(+) Contemporary psychologists are significantly more open-minded, and have an increased understanding of other cultures. This has helped reduce ethnocentrism.
(+) Heightened awareness has led to the development of ‘indigenous psychologies’, e.g. Afrocentrism (theories about people with African roots must take into account the African context). It recognises the uniqueness of every culture and looks at behaviour from inside the cultural system.
(+) Progress in the field of diagnosing mental disorders. DSM-IV acknowledged the culture bias and introduced an appendix on culture-bound syndromes

Question 20

Ethical Implications Definition

Answer 20

The impact that psychological research may have on the rights of other people, especially participants. This includes the influence of research on public policy, and also the way groups are perceived in society.

Question 21

Ethical Implications

Answer 21

Different to ethical guidelines (which exist to protect those involved in research).
Even if a psychologist follows all ethical guidelines, they have no control over: how the findings are presented in the media, the impact of the findings on public policy, and how their findings may impact the perception of particular groups in society.
Examples: Milgram’s obedience study (shocks), was to prove that ‘Germans are different’ and that they would blindly obey, leading to other nationalities frowning upon the Germans. Bowlby’s research on child-rearing put too much pressure on the mother, making them feel guilty for going to work

Question 22

Evaluation of Ethical Implications

Answer 22

(+) Has led to research being conducted in a much more SENSITIVE manner, which has resulted in the protection of participants
(+) Recognising ethical implications means researchers can be more CAREFUL. Strict guidelines have been put into place to protect all people
(+) By understanding the ethical implications, a COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS can be used to decide if the study is worth it.
(-) Sometimes it is NOT POSSIBLE to see what the EFFECTS of research are. It is also not an objective decision, so there may be BIAS.
(-) Ethical guidelines can sometimes be TOO STRICT. There are some areas of research that would be beneficial, but cannot be looked into due to potential issues. Reaching a balance is therefore problematic.

Question 23

Socially sensitive research

Answer 23

Refers to studies in which there are POTENTIAL SOCIAL CONSEQUENCES, either directly for the participants or the class of individuals represented by the research
Sieber and Stanley identified concerns: implications (wider effects, e.g. prejudice), uses/public policy (what is the research used for and can it be used for the wrong purpose?), validity of the research
They identified 10 types of ethical issues: privacy, confidentiality, valid methodology, deception, informed consent, equitable treatment, scientific freedom, ownership of data, values and risk/benefit ratio.
Social Control: in the 1920s/30s US, they sterilised many citizens on the grounds that they were ‘feeble minded’

Question 24

Examples of socially sensitive research

Answer 24

• Lowney (1995) did research into teenage Satanists. Interviewed people and the findings suggested they were Satanists because they did not agree with their peer group. Parental backlash and peer exclusion were potential effects
• Humphreys (1970) did research into homosexuals, by checking out their backgrounds. The findings show that gay stereotypes are false. But at the time, homosexuality was not accepted, and also it was a breach of privacy
• RAINE (1966) did research which found that most violent criminals had damage to their frontal lobe (which specialises in impulse control). He suggested that children could be scanned to help find potential criminals in the future. BUT what would happen to a child identified with this pattern? What should the parents or wider society do with that information?

Question 25

Evaluation of socially sensitive research

Answer 25

(-) NOT sufficient ENOUGH to simply SAFEGUARD. There is always a chance of an indirect impact on the participant’s family or friends. Current ethical guidelines do not require researchers to consider how their findings may be used to shape public social policy.
(-) Socially sensitive research can lead to DISCRIMINATION (e.g. eugenics when low IQ was found), which can be ‘justified’ by research findings
(-) Suggested that we should AVOID socially sensitive research, BUT this would LEAVE researchers with nothing but TRIVIAL QUESTIONS to investigate.
(-) Ignoring socially sensitive areas can lead to an ‘ABDICATION’ of their social responsibilities. We need to know how to help underrepresented people.
(+) Some research is DESIRABLE and BENEFICIAL to society. It was found that young children could be reliable witnesses if questioned in an appropriate manner.