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Histology > Lesson 3: Endocrine Glands > Flashcards

Lesson 3: Endocrine Glands Flashcards

1
Q

How does the endocrine system differ from the nervous system in communication?

A

The endocrine system uses chemical signals (hormones) via the bloodstream, while the nervous system uses electrical impulses for rapid communication.

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2
Q

What are the two feedback mechanisms that regulate hormone levels?

A

Negative feedback (inhibits further secretion) and positive feedback (enhances secretion).

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3
Q

What is an example of positive feedback in the endocrine system?

A

Oxytocin release during childbirth to enhance uterine contractions.

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4
Q

What is an example of negative feedback in the endocrine system?

A

Regulation of blood glucose by insulin and glucagon.

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5
Q

What are amine hormones derived from?

A

Amino acids such as tyrosine (e.g., epinephrine, T3, T4).

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6
Q

What are peptide hormones composed of?

A

Chains of amino acids (e.g., insulin, glucagon).

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7
Q

What are the precursors of steroid hormones?

A

Cholesterol.

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8
Q

How do lipid-soluble hormones (e.g., steroid hormones) affect target cells?

A

They cross the plasma membrane and bind to intracellular receptors to regulate gene expression.

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9
Q

How do water-soluble hormones affect target cells?

A

By binding to surface receptors and initiating second messenger pathways.

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10
Q

What are enteroendocrine cells?

A

Cells in the GI tract that release hormones like gastrin and secretin.

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11
Q

What hormone secreted by the stomach stimulates gastric acid production?

A

Gastrin.

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12
Q

What hormone secreted by the duodenum stimulates the pancreas to release bicarbonate?

A

Secretin.

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13
Q

What is the role of cholecystokinin (CCK)?

A

It stimulates secretion of pancreatic enzymes and the release of bile from the gallbladder and pancreatic enzymes.

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14
Q

What is the function of ghrelin?

A

To stimulate hunger.

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15
Q

What regulates the anterior pituitary?

A

Releasing and inhibiting hormones from the hypothalamus.

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16
Q

What is the target of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)?

A

The thyroid gland.

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17
Q

What is the function of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)?

A

To stimulate the adrenal cortex to release cortisol.

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18
Q

What does prolactin regulate?

A

Milk production in mammary glands.

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19
Q

What hormones are transported along the hypothalamic-hypophyseal tract to the posterior pituitary?

A

Oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone (ADH).

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20
Q

Oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone (ADH).

A

To conserve water by reducing urine output.

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21
Q

What is the primary effect of growth hormone (GH)?

A

Stimulates growth and metabolism in tissues, particularly bone and muscle.

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22
Q

What condition results from excess growth hormone after puberty?

A

Acromegaly.

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23
Q

What is diabetes insipidus?

A

A condition caused by insufficient ADH, leading to excessive urine production.

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24
Q

What is the role of iodide in thyroid hormone synthesis?

A

It is essential for the production of T3 and T4.

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25
Q

How is thyroid hormone stored in the thyroid gland?

A

As thyroglobulin in the colloid of follicles.

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26
Q

What is a goiter?

A

An enlargement of the thyroid gland, often due to iodine deficiency.

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27
Q

How does calcitonin lower blood calcium levels?

A

By inhibiting osteoclast activity and promoting calcium deposition in bones.

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28
Q

What is Graves’ disease?

A

An autoimmune condition causing hyperthyroidism.

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29
Q

What is the relationship between PTH and calcitonin?

A

PTH raises blood calcium levels, while calcitonin lowers them.

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30
Q

How does PTH affect the kidneys?

A

It reduces calcium excretion and promotes phosphate excretion.

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31
Q

What is hypoparathyroidism, and what are its symptoms?

A

Low PTH secretion leading to hypocalcemia, causing muscle cramps and tetany.

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32
Q

What are the three layers of the adrenal cortex?

A

Zona glomerulosa, zona fasciculata, and zona reticularis.

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33
Q

What hormone is secreted by the zona glomerulosa?

A

Aldosterone - Regulates sodium and potassium balance, affecting blood pressure and fluid retention.

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34
Q

What hormone is secreted by the zona fasciculata?

A

Cortisol.

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34
Q

What is the function of cortisol?

A

To regulate metabolism, reduce inflammation, and assist in stress responses.

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35
Q

What is produced by the adrenal medulla?

A

Catecholamines (epinephrine and norepinephrine).

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35
Q

What does somatostatin secreted by delta cells regulate?

A

Inhibits insulin and glucagon secretion.

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35
Q

What is the primary function of insulin?

A

To decrease blood glucose levels.

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35
Q

What is pheochromocytoma?

A

A tumor of the adrenal medulla causing excessive catecholamine release.

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36
Q

What is Type 1 diabetes?

A

An autoimmune condition where beta cells are destroyed, leading to insulin deficiency.

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37
Q

What is Type 2 diabetes?

A

A condition where cells become resistant to insulin.

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38
Q

What are the long-term complications of diabetes?

A

Neuropathy, retinopathy, nephropathy, and cardiovascular disease.

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39
Q

What hormone stimulates ovulation in females?

A

Luteinizing hormone (LH).

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40
Q

What is the role of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) in males?

A

Stimulates spermatogenesis in the testes.

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41
Q

What hormone maintains the uterine lining during pregnancy?

A

Progesterone.

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42
Q

What is the function of testosterone?

A

Promotes male secondary sexual characteristics and spermatogenesis.

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43
Q

What hormone is secreted by the pineal gland?

A

Melatonin.

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44
Q

What is the role of melatonin?

A

To regulate circadian rhythms and sleep-wake cycles.

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45
Q

What is Cushing’s syndrome?

A

A condition caused by excess cortisol, leading to weight gain, moon face, and high blood pressure.

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46
Q

What is Addison’s disease?

A

Adrenal insufficiency leading to fatigue, hypotension, and hyperpigmentation.

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47
Q

What is the cause of goiter in iodine deficiency?

A

Decreased T3 and T4 production leads to TSH stimulation and gland hypertrophy.

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48
Q

What is the thymus gland’s role in immunity?

A

It produces thymosin, which promotes T-cell development.

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49
Q

What is the primary function of prostaglandins?

A

They act as local hormones mediating inflammation, pain, and vascular tone.

50
Q

What are the 2 classes of hormones?

A

steroids (cholesterol-derived) gonads and adrenal cortex

protein based (amines, peptides, proteins) thyroid, pituitary gland, pancreas

51
Q

What does a homeostatic regulatory mechanism involve?

A

A Receptor, which is a sensor sensitive to a particular environmental change or stimulus; A Control Center or integration center, which receives and processes the information provided by the receptor and issues a command
An Effector, which is a cell or organ that responds to the control center’s commands. Its activity either opposes the stimulus (negative feedback) or intensifies it (positive feedback).

52
Q

What systems maintain homeosatsis?

A

Intrinsic autoregulation: cells automatically adapt to an environmental change

Extrinsic regulation:
Nervous system = rapid, short-term response, mediated by neurotransmitters and nerve impulses
Endocrine system: slower, longer-lasting responses, mediated by hormones.

53
Q

How are endocrine glands classified based on the number of cells forming them?

A

Into unicellular glands (e.g., isolated cells) and multicellular glands (e.g., entire organs).

54
Q

What distinguishes endocrine glands in terms of morphology?

A

Their arrangement is epithelioid tissue without an exposed surface.

55
Q

What is the DNES (Diffuse Neuroendocrine System)?

A

A system where cells have both neuronal and endocrine properties, such as enteroendocrine cells and thyroid C cells.

56
Q

What are examples of unicellular endocrine glands?

A

Enteroendocrine cells in the gastrointestinal tract and C cells in the thyroid.

57
Q

What is the main function of DNES cells?

A

They secrete hormones or factors that regulate local tissue function.

58
Q

What types of hormones are secreted by enteroendocrine cells?

A

Peptide hormones such as gastrin and somatostatin.

59
Q

What are the primary roles of hormones secreted by DNES cells?

A

Regulating motility of the digestive tract and stimulating enzyme secretion.

60
Q

Where are enteroendocrine cells predominantly located?

A

In the epithelium of the gastrointestinal tract.

61
Q

What are the main hormones secreted by the stomach?

A

Gastrin, serotonin, histamine, and ghrelin.

62
Q

What is the role of gastrin?

A

Stimulates gastric acid secretion and increases intestinal motility.

63
Q

Which hormone increases hunger and is secreted by the stomach?

A

Ghrelin.

64
Q

How does secretin function in the digestive system?

A

Stimulates bicarbonate secretion from the pancreas to neutralize stomach acid.

65
Q

What is the role of peptide YY secreted by the large intestine?

A

Slows gastric emptying and promotes satiety.

66
Q

What hormone increases insulin release and is secreted by the large intestine?

A

Glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1).

67
Q

What are the main hormones secreted by the small intestine?

A

cholecystokinin, serotonin, secretin, motilin

68
Q

What are the main hormones secreted by the large intestine?

A

Peptide YY, glucagon-like peptide-1, somatostatin

69
Q

What are the four morphological arrangements of multicellular endocrine glands?

A

Cords/clumps, islets, interstitial cells, and follicles.

70
Q

Which glands have a cord-like arrangement of endocrine cells?

A

Pituitary, parathyroids, adrenal, and pineal glands.

71
Q

Where are endocrine islets found?

A

In the pancreas as the islets of Langerhans.

72
Q

What is the arrangement of endocrine cells in the thyroid gland?

A

Follicles filled with colloid and lined by follicular cells.

73
Q

How are interstitial endocrine cells arranged?

A

hey are dispersed in connective tissue, as seen in the testes and ovaries.

74
Q

What is the hypophyseal portal system?

A

A microcirculation system connecting the hypothalamus to the anterior pituitary.

75
Q

What is the function of the hypophyseal portal system?

A

To transport hypothalamic hormones quickly to the anterior pituitary without entering general circulation.

76
Q

Which structure delivers hormones from the hypothalamus to the anterior pituitary?

A

The hypophyseal portal system.

77
Q

What are the three main components of the hypophyseal portal system?

A

Primary capillary plexus, hypophyseal portal veins, and secondary capillary plexus.

78
Q

Where is the primary capillary plexus located?

A

In the median eminence of the hypothalamus.

79
Q

What is the role of hypophyseal portal veins?

A

They transport hormones from the primary plexus to the secondary plexus in the anterior pituitary.

80
Q

What is the function of the secondary capillary plexus?

A

To release hypothalamic hormones to the cells of the anterior pituitary.

81
Q

What hormones are transported by the hypophyseal portal system?

A

Releasing hormones like gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), growth hormone–releasing hormone (GHRH), and thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH).

82
Q

Which hormones inhibit anterior pituitary hormone secretion?

A

Somatostatin (inhibits growth hormone) and dopamine (inhibits prolactin).

83
Q

What are the target glands for gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)?

A

Gonads, stimulating the release of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH).

84
Q

What is the effect of corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) on the anterior pituitary?

A

Stimulates the secretion of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH).

85
Q

Which hypothalamic hormone regulates thyroid activity?

A

Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH).

86
Q

What is the function of prolactin-releasing hormone?

A

Stimulates prolactin secretion from the anterior pituitary.

87
Q

Which hormones are secreted by the posterior pituitary?

A

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and oxytocin.

88
Q

How does oxytocin function during childbirth?

A

It induces uterine contractions.

89
Q

What is the role of oxytocin in lactation?

A

Stimulates contraction of myoepithelial cells in the mammary glands for milk ejection.

90
Q

What is the adenohypophysis?

A

The anterior lobe of the pituitary gland.

91
Q

Why is the adenohypophysis called the master regulator?

A

It controls the function of multiple endocrine glands by releasing tropic hormones.

92
Q

What is an example of a hormone induced by the hypothalamus in the adenohypophysis?

A

Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), which acts on the adrenal glands.

93
Q

How are cells arranged in the adenohypophysis?

A

In clumps or cords separated by fenestrated blood capillaries.

94
Q

What stimulates the production of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) in the adenohypophysis?

A

Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) from the hypothalamus.

95
Q

What are the three main cell types in the adenohypophysis?

A

Acidophils, basophils, and chromophobes.

96
Q

What hormones do acidophils secrete?

A

Growth hormone (GH) and prolactin (PRL).

97
Q

What hormones do basophils secrete?

A

Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), and gonadotropins (FSH and LH).

98
Q

What are chromophobes, and what is their function?

A

Cells that do not stain strongly; their function is not fully understood but may include serving as reserve or support cells.

99
Q

What types of cells are found in the neurohypophysis?

A

Non-myelinated nerve fibers, glial cells (pituicytes), and secretory neurons.

100
Q

What are Herring bodies, and what do they store?

A

Large vesicles in the neurohypophysis that store secretory granules, including ADH and oxytocin.

101
Q

What is the primary role of pituicytes in the neurohypophysis?

A

To support the secretory neurons.

102
Q

What are the two main hormones secreted by the neurohypophysis?

A

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and oxytocin.

103
Q

What types of cells support neurons in the neurohypophysis?

A

Pituicytes, specialized glial cells.

104
Q

What is the function of the network of fenestrated capillaries surrounding thyroid follicles?

A

To facilitate the exchange of hormones and nutrients.

105
Q

What are the two main cell types in the thyroid gland?

A

Follicular cells and parafollicular cells (C cells).

106
Q

What do follicular cells secrete?

A

Thyroid hormones T3 (triiodothyronine) and T4 (thyroxine).

107
Q

What is the function of parafollicular cells (C cells)?

A

To produce calcitonin

108
Q

What is the principal component of colloid within the thyroid follicles?

A

Thyroglobulin, the inactive storage form of thyroid hormones.

109
Q

What are the main functions of T3 and T4?

A

They increase metabolism, oxygen and ATP consumption, body temperature, and support nervous system development.

110
Q

How is the activity of follicular cells regulated?

A

By thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) from the pituitary.

111
Q

How is the activity of C cells regulated?

A

By blood calcium levels, independent of the hypophysis.

112
Q

Why is calcitonin considered a hypocalcemic hormone?

A

It lowers blood calcium levels and opposes parathyroid hormone (PTH).

113
Q

What is the relationship between T3 and T4 potency?

A

T3 is more potent than T4, although more T4 is produced by the thyroid.

114
Q

What enzymatic activity is essential for iodide oxidation in the thyroid?

A

Thyroid peroxidase (TPO).

115
Q

What role does iodine play in thyroid hormone synthesis?

A

It is added to tyrosine residues in thyroglobulin to produce T3 and T4.

116
Q

How is iodine transported into the thyroid gland?

A

Via active transport from the bloodstream.

117
Q

What are the main types of thyroid disorders?

A

Hypothyroidism, hyperthyroidism, euthyroid goiter, and thyroid cancer.

118
Q

What is the most common autoimmune cause of hypothyroidism?

A

Hashimoto’s thyroiditis.

119
Q

What condition results from excessive thyroid hormone production?

A

Hyperthyroidism, often caused by Graves’ disease.

120
Q

Where are the parathyroid glands located?

A

Posterior to the thyroid gland, embedded in its surface.

121
Q

What are the two main cell types in the parathyroid glands?

A

Chief cells and oxyphil cells.

122
Q

What is the primary function of chief cells in the parathyroid?

A

They secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH).

123
Q

What is the function of PTH?

A

Increases blood calcium levels by stimulating osteoclast activity, reducing calcium excretion in the kidneys, and activating vitamin D.

124
Q

What is the role of oxyphil cells in the parathyroid glands?

A

Their function is not well understood, but they appear in older individuals and may have a supporting role.

125
Q

How does PTH regulate calcium levels in bones?

A

Stimulates osteoblasts, which in turn activate osteoclasts to release calcium from bones.

126
Q

What is PTH’s effect on the kidneys?

A

Reduces calcium excretion and promotes the conversion of vitamin D into its active form.

127
Q

What is the function of androgens from the adrenal cortex?

A

Precursors to sex hormones, contributing to secondary sexual characteristics.

128
Q

What triggers the secretion of epinephrine and norepinephrine?

A

Sympathetic nervous system activation during stress.

Histology (4 decks)

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