Lesson 1: The Causes Of The 1857 Rebellion. Flashcards
Expansion of Company Rule in India
Key victories: Battle of Plassey (1757) & Buxar (1764) secured EIC control in Bengal.
• Territorial growth: Anglo-Mysore Wars (1766–1799) & Anglo-Maratha Wars (1772–1818).
• Governor-General Wellesley (1800s): Expanded territories via subsidiary alliances & annexations.
• Doctrine of Lapse: Used by Lord Dalhousie (1848–1856) to annex 33 princely states (e.g., Jhansi, Punjab).
• Structure by 1857: EIC governed India via presidencies (Madras, Bombay, Bengal).
Factors Behind Company Rule
- Indian divisions: No unified state; fractured by caste, religion, and language.
- Indian collaboration: Key betrayals (e.g., Mir Jafar at Plassey) & princely states cooperating for self-interest.
- Indian sepoys: EIC armies (250,000 strong) relied on well-trained, regularly paid Indian soldiers.
- Dependency on Indians: EIC rule depended on divisions & cooperation among Indians.
Company Reforms (1820s–1850s)
Social reforms:
• 1829: Banned sati; allowed widow remarriage (cultural backlash).
• Missionary activity expanded; seen as promoting Christianity (nasrani vs. kafir grievances).
• Education:
• 1835: English Education Act introduced Western curriculum; aim to create “Indian in blood, English in taste.”
• Infrastructure:
• Grand Trunk Road & Ganges Canal improved transport & irrigation; boosted productivity in some regions.
• Taxation:
• Zamindars heavily taxed; many lost land to debt or auction.
Opposition to Company Rule
• Religious grievances: Perceived attack on Hindu & Muslim culture (e.g., sati, missionary activity).
• Economic issues: High taxes, loss of zamindar land, forced opium cultivation, & competition from British textiles.
• Doctrine of Lapse: Alienated rulers like Nana Sahib & Rani of Jhansi, fueling rebellion.
• Judicial bias: Indians received harsher sentences; British officials rarely punished.
Support for Company Rule
• Irrigation schemes: Benefited some areas (e.g., Ganges districts); linked prosperity to loyalty.
• Social support: Indian reformers (e.g., Ram Mohan Roy) backed bans on sati.
• Land/tax reforms: Occasionally lowered taxes for peasants after removing zamindars.
• Limited enforcement: Reforms often weak outside major cities; impact varied regionally.
Structure of the Presidency Armies
The EIC maintained three distinct armies under its Presidencies—Bengal, Bombay, and Madras. While all three were composed predominantly of Indian sepoys led by British officers, they differed in recruitment, privileges, and administration:
1. Bombay and Madras Armies:
• More diverse in terms of caste, social status, and religion.
• Paid a slightly higher base salary compared to Bengal sepoys.
2. Bengal Army:
• Recruited primarily from higher-caste Hindus of the Ganges Valley.
• Enjoyed privileges, including exemption from flogging and restrictions on overseas service to preserve caste purity.
• Received “bhatta” (extra pay) for service in non-EIC territories, making their service lucrative, particularly during wars.
Pre-1857 Discontent
Signs of unrest among sepoys emerged well before the rebellion, underscoring longstanding grievances and resistance to cultural impositions by the EIC:
1. Religious and Cultural Sensitivities:
• 1806 Vellore Mutiny: Sparked by a new dress code that disrespected Hindu and Muslim traditions.
• 1824 Burma War: High-caste sepoys rebelled against communal dining practices that violated caste norms.
2. Military Setbacks:
• The 1839 retreat from Afghanistan exposed British vulnerabilities and damaged sepoy confidence in their commanders.
3. Changing Policies:
• The annexation of territories like Punjab and Oudh eliminated bhatta payments.
• Recruitment of Sikh and Gurkha soldiers, seen as “lower caste,” upset the Bengal Army’s sepoys.
• Officers became increasingly dismissive of Indian cultural practices by the 1850s, eroding mutual respect.
1857 Rebellion: Causes and Outbreak
Immediate Trigger
The introduction of the Lee-Enfield rifle requiring sepoys to bite cartridges allegedly greased with cow and pig fat offended Hindu and Muslim religious sentiments. Despite efforts to address the issue, suspicions fueled widespread resentment.
Timeline of Events
1. Mangal Pandey’s Defiance (March 1857): • Refused orders, attacked British officers, and called for rebellion. His subsequent execution inspired unrest. 2. Meerut Mutiny (May 1857): • 85 sepoys were imprisoned for refusing the cartridges, sparking an uprising. Sepoys attacked British officers, freed prisoners, and marched to Delhi. 3. Capture of Delhi (May 11): • Rebels sought leadership under the reluctant Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar. Delhi became the focal point of the uprising.
Spread of the Rebellion
• Violence erupted in northern and central India, including Oudh, Bundelkhand, and Rohilkhand. • Local zamindars and peasants joined forces against the EIC, motivated by grievances against British policies. • Southern India and Punjab largely remained loyal to the British, with Sikhs actively aiding in suppression.
Interpretations of the 1857 Events
- A Mutiny:
• Emphasized by contemporary British historians to downplay the scale and focus on disaffected soldiers.- A War of Independence:
• Advocated by Marx and later Indian nationalists, highlighting unity among Hindus and Muslims and framing the events as an anti-colonial struggle. - A Rebellion (Modern Consensus):
• Viewed as a reactionary movement seeking to restore the old order rather than a unified nationalist uprising. Historians note limited geographical spread and participation.
- A War of Independence:
Key Takeaways
The 1857 Rebellion was not an isolated incident but the culmination of decades of dissatisfaction, cultural disrespect, and economic grievances. While it failed to end British rule, the uprising marked a turning point in the colonial relationship, leading to the dissolution of the EIC and the establishment of direct Crown rule in India.
