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Human Media Interaction Theory > Lectures & Articles > Flashcards

Lectures & Articles Flashcards

1
Q

Which steps are part of the Information Simplistic Common model of human cognition?

A 
Stimulus
- Attention
- Perception 
- Thought processes
- Decision
Response or action
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2
Q

What are the major functions of attention?

A
  • Alertness (e.g. loud sounds)
  • Selection: Orienting resources to task relevant information (e.g. location, color) because there is limited capacity for processing
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3
Q

Attention control, what does it contain?

A
  • Bottom-up attention control (fast detection): Physical salience attracts attention
  • Top-down attentional control (slow detection): Goals determine what you attend to
  • Relevance history: Attent to what worked for you in the past, what has been relevant for you in the past. (e.g. recognize someones voice)
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4
Q

From sensation to perception, what do you need?

A
  • Absolute threshold= The minimum magnitude of a stimulus that can be discriminated from no stimulus at all.
  • Difference threshold = detecting changes in intensity
  • If you want to elicit the sense of “difference” you need to know the just noticeable difference.
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5
Q

What is sensation?

A
  • Conversation of physical energy into neural codes recognized by the brain.
  • Sensation is the initial step of gathering stimulus information
  • Sensory modalities/senses (vision, hearing, taste, smell, tactility)
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6
Q

What is perception?

A
  • Process beyond sensation, making sense of sensation
  • Processing + organizing raw information
  • Forming a coherent representation of the world
  • Using these representations to solve problems in the real world (navigating, planning)
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7
Q

What does “Perceptual decision making” contain?

A
  • The sensory/perceptual system has to detect signals in the presence of sensory noise. (signal detection theory figure)
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8
Q

What are influencing factors of perceptual decision making?

A
  • Sensitivity: The ability to detect a signal

- Bias: The tendency to confirm detection (expectation)

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9
Q

What are the five functions of perception (any modality)?

A
  • Attention -> It decides which incoming information is to be further processed and which is to be ignored
  • Localization -> It determines where the objects are
  • Recognition -> It identifies objects and puts them into categories
  • Abstraction of features -> Extracting critical features of an object
  • Perceptual Constancies -> It recognizes objects as being the same under very different circumstances
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10
Q

What do the WCAG 2.0 (=Web content Accessibility Guidelines) contain?

A
  • Perceptible (The information must be evident to the senses of any user)
  • Operable (Navigation components and user interface must be able to be realized)
  • Understandable (Information and interface management must be intelligible)
  • Robust (Content must be able to be interpreted by user applications, including assistive technologies)
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11
Q

Internet is particularly suitable for people with Down syndrome for a number of reasons that help with each symptom, what are these?:

A
  • Motor Deficit -> Internet provides fun and enjoyment, very motivating for the movement
  • Phonological and auditory deficit -> web makes people with Down syndrome able to communicate in multiple ways, allowing for non-verbal + non-written responding
  • Visual deficit -> Technology adapts to people with visual problems. It allows pupil to be in control and move at own pace
  • Neurological deficit -> Adolescents with Down syndrome dedicate almost two hours or more of their free time to activities that do not require social skills (surfing the internet)
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12
Q

What were conclusions from the study of Alonso-Virgos et al (2018)?

A
  • People with Down syndrome may have trouble understanding the meaning of icons
  • People with Down syndrome may have motor difficulties with the use of the mouse (include keyboard shortcuts)
  • People with Down syndrome may have trouble understanding a complex text.
  • Abbreviated words are a barrier to understanding for people with Down syndrom, because they demand a high level of abstract reasoning
  • People with Down syndrome can have linguistic and memory limitations
  • The use of a visible narrator in the videos was a notable help for improving the understanding of the video
  • Audio files should be played at 20db and if we try to avoid the background noise
  • The user of timers or chronometers during the application is not recommended for down syndrom people
  • Use a monochrome background color coul improve the attention of the user, and it does not harm the readability of the text.
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13
Q

What is multisensory integration?

A
  • The consolidation of information from simultaneously experienced unisensory modalities into a single multisensory perception
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14
Q

What are the benefits of multisensory processing?

A
  • Faster responses
  • Better categorization
  • Better memory retention
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15
Q

What are the Multisensory guidelines?

A
  • Spatial contiguity (space)
  • Temporal contiguity (time)
    (Two signals should happen at the same time and come from the same location)
  • Semantic congruency: Two signals should share identity (dog should bark, not make cat noise)
  • Cross-modal correspondence: Systematic associations between basic stimuli (e.g. bouba - kiki-> bouba sounds more like a circle, kiki sounds more recttangular, bitter and black, red and sweet)
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16
Q

What is the cognitive load theory?

A

Instructional (design) theory based on our knowledge of human cognition

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17
Q

What are the different types of sensations?

A
  • Sight (Ligt waves -> Color, pattern, texture)
  • Hearing (Sound waves -> Noises, tones)
  • Skin sensation (External contact -> Warmth, pain, touch)
  • Smell (Volatile substances -> Odors)
  • Taste (Soluble substances -> Flavors (bitter, sweet)
  • Kinesthesis (Body movements -> position of body parts)
  • Vestibular sense (Mechanical & Gravitational forces -> Spatial movements & Gravitiy pull)
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18
Q

What are the types of perception?

A
  • Bottom-up perception: What attentional systems have led through
  • Top-down perception: Role of pre-existing knowledge and ongoing thought, context effect

Perception is not a passive process, it involves active use of pre-existing knowledge to provide meaning

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19
Q

What are the assumptions about the working of the mind in multimedia learning?

A
  • Dual channel: Humans possess seperate information processing channels for verbal & visual sensories
  • Limited capacity: There is a limited amount of processing capacity available in the channels
  • Active processing: Learning requires substantial cognitive processing in the channels
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20
Q

What are the types of cognitive load?

A
  • Intrinsic load (Information imposes a heavy cognitive load because it’s intrinsic complexity (1+5 vs 6+12 *6) -> can be changed by adjusting what is learned or adjusting the knowledge level of learners.
  • Extraneous load (Information imposes a heavy cognitive load because of the way it’s presentated -> can be adjusted by instructional design)
  • Germane load (processing, construction, and automation of schemas)

All types of cognitive load are related to required elements of interactivity in working memory

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21
Q

What are the types of cognitive load?

A
  • Intrinsic load (Information imposes a heavy cognitive load because it’s intrinsic complexity (1+5 vs 6+12 *6) -> can be adjusted what is learned or adjusting the knowledge level of learners.
  • Extraneous load (Information imposes a heavy cognitive load because of the way it’s presentated -> can be adjusted by instructional design)
  • Germane load (processing, constructi9on, and automation of schemas)

All types of cognitive load are related to required elements of interactivity in working memory

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22
Q

What are the types of processing?

A
  • Essential processing: aimed at making sense of the presented material, including selecting,organizing, and integrating of words and images.
  • Incidental processing: Aimed at nonessential aspects of the presented material
  • Representational holding: Aimed at holding a verbal or visual representation in working memory
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23
Q

What are off-loading methods from when the visual channel is overloaded with essential processing?

A
  • Offloading: Move essential processing from the visual channel to auditory channel

Research effect:
- Modality effect: Better transfer when words are presented as narration rather than on-screen text.

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24
Q

What are methods for load reduction when the essential processing cover both channels?

A
  • Sementing: Allow time between bite-size elements
  • Pre-training: Provide pre-training in names and characteristics of the system.

Research effect:

  • Segmentation effect: Better transfer when lesson is presented in learner-controller segmants, rather than continuous units.
  • Pre-training effect: Better transfer when students know names and behaviors of system components.
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25
Q

What are methods for offloading when one or both channels are overloaded by essential and incidental processing (attributable to to extraneous materials)?

A
  • Weeding: Eliminate interesting but extraneous material to reduce processing
  • Signaling: Provide ques for how to process the materials.

Research effect:

  • Coherence effect: Better transfer when extreanous material is reduced
  • Signaling effect: Better transfer when signals are included
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26
Q

Essential + incidental processing (caused by confusing presentation) one or both channels are overloaded, what are the reducing methods?

A
  • Aligning: Place printed words near corresponding parts of the graphics to reduce visual scanning.
  • Eliminating redundancy: Avoid presenting identical streams of printed & spoken words

Research effect:

  • Spatial contiguity effect: Better transfer when printed words are placed near corresponding grpahics
  • Redundancy effect: Better transfer when words are presented as narration, rather than narration an on-screen text.
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27
Q

What does mulsemedia mean?

A

Multiple sensorial media

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28
Q

What were the multimedia themes investigated?

A
  1. Multimedia system/application has at least two media objects that are correlated.
  2. Multiple media objects should be used jointly and separately to improve applications’ performance and dynamic content needs to be delivered transparently, to adapt to the users’environment
  3. Multimedia applications are multimodal & interactive
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29
Q

What are the different types of sensing?

A
  • Bottom-up sensing: capture, interpretation of info from numerous sensory organs (sensory processing)
  • Top-down thinking: Multiple senses are cognitively joined + aligned, and then compared to high-order cognitive schema’s (task semantics*social norms) (cognitive reasoning)
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30
Q

The five senses of mulsemedia systems are:

A
  • Visual: Assimilation of textual & visual information
  • Auditory: Transfer of sound, speech, music & special effects
  • Tactile/ haptic: Identification of different types of sensations
  • Gastronomy (4. taste & 5. Smell): Gatekeeping senses (results of interaction)
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31
Q

What does “binding” mean?

A

Integration and aligment of sensory fragments by segregating and combining processes.

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32
Q

What does the Uses and gratifications theory mean?

A

What do people do with media? How do people select a certain medium?

  • Goal-oriented / intentional use of media -> goal is to satisfy an (innated) need.
  • The same need can be fulfilled in multiple different ways that are competing against each other.
  • This is a conscious process -> users are aware of their needs
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33
Q

the types of needs/ motivations are:

A
  • Cognitive needs (need for knowledge, information)
  • Affective needs (mood management, recreation, entertainment)
  • Social-interaction needs (social contact, parasocial relationships)
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34
Q

what is motivation?

A
  • A codition that enegizes behavior and gives direction
  • Operates like an internal force
  • Experienced as a conscious desire, but can remain subconscious
  • Often controllable by a conscious choice
  • Influenced by multiple factors both internal and external
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35
Q

Motivation refers to all the processes involved in:

A

(a) sensing a need or desire
(b) Activating and guiding the organism by slecting, directing, sustaining the mental and physical activity aimed at meeting the need or desire
(c) Reducing the sensation of need

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36
Q

What does the instinct theory behold (William James) ?

A
  • Certain behaviors are completely determined by innate biological factors
  • Instincts is a term used in ethology in the sense of fixed action patterns of species
  • Imprinting
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37
Q

What does the Drive theory (Hull and Spence) behold?

A
  • People are driven by biological drives or needs -> Goal is drive reduction
  • Homeostasis: Organisms seek balanced condition in the body (maintaining a set point)
  • Similar to a thermostat/air conditioner
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38
Q

What is the Psychodynamic theory (Sigmund Freud)?

A
  • Motivation arises from unconscious desired
  • Developmental changes in these uurges appear as we mature
  • Sex and agression
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39
Q

Maslows hierarchy of needs, what are the steps?

A
  • Physiological needs (food,water, warmth, rest)
  • Safety needs (security, safety)
  • Belonginess and love needs (intimate relationships, fiends)
  • Esteem (prestige and feeling of accomplishment)
  • Self-actuallization (achieving one’s potentional, including creative activities)

They are divided over: basic needs, psychological needs, self-fullfilment needs

An individuals motivational hierarchy is not rigid, but can be influenced by proximal stimuli and by the person’s developmental level.

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40
Q

What is the evolutionary perspective on maslow’s hierarchy of needs?

A
  • The most basic motives being related to survival, followed by motives related to reproduction and to survival of oggspring
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41
Q

What are incentive motivations and rewards?

A

There are two types of incentives:

  • Primary: Powerful motivators by themselvels (sweet taste)
  • Secondary: Established through learning
  • Natural rewards: activate the brain’s dopamine system (reward system)
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42
Q

What are two types of motivation?

A

Intrinsic motivation: The desire to engage in an activity for one’s own sake, rather than for an external consequence. The activity itself is a reward (passion, creativity)

Extrinsic motivation: The desire to engage in an activity to achieve/ avoid an external consequence, such as a reward/ punishment

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43
Q

How can the type of motivation change?

A
  • Overjustification: Occurs when a reward is given without regard for quality of performance (intrinsic -> extrinsic)
  • Internalization of an extrinsic motivation: Extrinsic motivation is taken in, and intergrated into the value system (extrinsic -> instrinsic)
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44
Q

What is the self-determination theory (Ryan & Deci, 2000)?

A

Theory of human motivation, that consists of 3 intrinsic human needs:

  • Need for autonomy (agency,control)
  • Need for competence (challenge, and feelings of mastery)
  • Need for relatedness (mainting close and meaningful relationships)

Psychological well-being is dependent on the satisfaction of these 3 needs.

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45
Q

What are the hedonic vs eudaimonic needs?

A

Hedonic motivation:
- The need for arousal, excitement, fun, positive valence

Eudaimonic motivation:

  • The need for meaningfulness, personal growth, sense of purpose of life, being moved, feelings of elevation ,artistic value.
  • Explains the entertainment value of negative valence
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46
Q

According to Sundar & Limperos, what is the defenition of gratification?

A

The pleasurable emotional reaction of happiness in response to a fulfillment of a desire or a goal

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47
Q

What are two problems with the measurements of artifacts identified by the article of Sundar & Limperos?

A
  • Measures designed for older media can be used to capture gratifications from newer media
  • Gratifications are conceptualized too broadly
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48
Q

What are synonyms for gratifications?

A
  • Fullfilments

- Pleasures

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49
Q

What are affordances?

A

Visual stimuli in our environments that suggest how we are supposed to interact with a certain object

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50
Q

What is the overarching goal of User & Gratification research?

A

To understand the interaction between the origins of media user needs + context

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51
Q

What are the aspects of the MAIN model?

A

This model states that the affordances provided by cues to the user, trigger cognitive heustics about characteristics of the content that they consume

  • Modality ( The different methods of presentation (audio, pictures) of media content, appealing to different human persceptual systems (hearing, seeing)
  • Agency (Refers to the agency affordances of the internet that allows us the be agents of sources of information
  • Interactivity (Defined as the affordance that allows the user to make real-time changes to the content in the medium)
  • Navigability (Refers to the affordance that allows user movement through the medium)
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52
Q

What are the potential new gratifications of the aspects of the MAIN model?

A
  • Modality: Realism, coolness, novelty, being there
  • Agency: Agency-enhancement, Community-building, Brandwagon, Filtering/tailoring, owness
  • Interactivity: Interaction, activity, responsiveness, dynamic control
  • Navigability: Browsing/variety-seeking, scaffolding/ navigation aids, play / fun
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53
Q

What are the benefits of good aesthetics?

A
  • Technology acceptance
  • Commercial value

Through:

  • Status & Identity
  • Perceptions of usability
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54
Q

What is the defenition of an Aestethic experince?

A

Pleasure attained from sensory perception during an experience of any kind with an artwork, product, landscape (Hekkert,2006)

Pleasure of - visual sense, auditory sense, tactile sense

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55
Q

What is the defenition of an product experience?

A

The entire set of experiences elicited by the interaction between a user and a product, including pleasure derived from the senses, and the meaning we attach to the product

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56
Q

What are the empirical approaches of studying Aesthetics?

A

Experimental approach:

  • Test the effect of isolated elements of an object/ form on human preferences
  • General laws of beauty (mathematical mode)
  • Individual differences are thought to be marginal

Exploratory approach

  • Evaluate complete and natural stimuli rather than manipulated artificial ones
  • More concerned with people’s judgement than objective aesthetic properties of stimuli
  • Factor analysis

Computational approach:

  • Automated methods that infer the aesthetic quality of images
  • Machine learning: Train methamatical model on images with known aesthetic quality ratings
  • Tease out image features related to higher quality ratings
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57
Q

Explicit measures of Aesthetics are:

A
  • Attractiveness
  • Beauty
  • Pleasantness
  • Liking
  • Preference
  • Aesthetic affect (kind of emotions that arouses in a user)
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58
Q

Implicit Aesthetic measures are:

A
  • Eye-tracking
  • Reaction time tasks
  • Fucntional MRI/ EEG
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59
Q

What is the evolutionary psychology perspective of Aesthetics?

A
  • Adaption: Main goal of humans is to survive and reproduce, in order to do so they have to solve many challenging situations.
  • By-product hypothesis: Aesthetic pleasure is a by-product of some evolutionary adaptive functions (seeking patterns and meaning)
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60
Q

What are the general (cross-modality) principles of aesthetic pleasure?

A

Principe 1: Maximum effect for minimal means (methaphor, ambiguity)

  • We want to function as economically as possible
  • Pleasing when relatively simple design features provide rich information

Principle 2: Unity in variety

  • Our systems like order and patterns
  • Gestalt principles: Organize information

Principle 3: Most advanced yet accetable (MAYA)

  • Preference of familiarity -> safe choice
  • Preference for novelyty and originality -> learning new things
  • Succes: Increase novelty while preserving some typicality of the design

Principle 4: Optimal match

  • Consistency/ congruence of impressions of the senses
  • Easier to identify, therefore increases survival value and is it more pleasing.
  • Incosistency is confusing, not effective
  • However, some surprise may be pleasing
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61
Q

What are the gestalt principles?

A
  • Proximity
  • Continuation
  • Similarity
  • Common region
  • Closure
  • Connectedness
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62
Q

What influences facial preferencess?

A
  • Symmetry
  • Sexuality
  • Dimorphic shape (other characterstics between sexes, besides sexual organs)
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63
Q

What does physical attractiveness increase?

A
  • Perceived trust
  • Perceived expertise
  • Liking for the communicator
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64
Q

Why do we care about Aesthetics?

A
  • A marketing instrument: if you are entering a market full of visually attrative products, people may not even look at your product if it is perceivded as backwards and old-fashioned
  • Signal status (group identification)
  • Increase perceptions of usability
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65
Q

What is the realtionship between aesthetics and usability?

A
  • Attractive products are expected to be easier to use (increased sales)
  • Are actually perceived as easier to use ( tell friends, positive reviews -> increased sales)
  • Tolerate more faults
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66
Q

What is Aesthetics according to Lavie & Travinsky?

A

A branch of philosophy that deals with the nature of beauty and taste, and the philosophy of art

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67
Q

What are two investigative methods for aesthetics?

A

The philosophical approach:
- Intentionality of aesthetic attitudes ( whether an aesthetic attitude develops when viewing of an object is done with a certain purpose in mind)
- Objective/subjective debate
Objective: emphasizes opject properties and theorizes about those attibutes
Subjective: The analysis of aesthetics should view beauty within the subject not the object

The empirical approach:

  • Experimental aproach (establish general laws of aesthetic preferences)
  • Exploratory approach (assiociated with empirical studies that evaluate natural stimuli)
68
Q

Different types of aesthetics:

A

Classical aesthetics:

  • Pertains to aesthetic notions that presided from antiquity until the 18th century
  • Aesthetic - pleasant - clean - clear - symmetrical
  • Closely related to many of the design rules advocated by usability experts

Expressive aesthetics:

  • Manifested by the designers ‘creativity and originality and the ability to break design conventions
  • Creative - using special effects - original - sophisticated - fascinating
69
Q

What are memories?

A

Memories make us who we think we are

70
Q

What is identity?

A
  • Identity-self-schema (based on stable sets of beliefs, experiences, generalizations about the self)
  • Self-schema affects attention, behavior
  • Self-perpuating: having a system that prevents change and produces new things that are very similar to the old ones:
71
Q

What are the 2 selves?

A
  • Experiencing-self: Constant stream of transient mental states
  • Remembering-self: Collects snapshots of important moments, is always superior
72
Q

What are the biases of experiencing and remembering selves?

A

Primacy bias: Better memory for events at the start
Recency bias: Better memory for events at the end

Recency bias > primacy bias

If the ending of a movie is bad, the movie is bad

73
Q

What are other notions about the experiencing and remembering self?

A
  • Peak moments: intesnity of emotion
  • Duration neglect: No effect of duration on rating of total experience
  • Peak-end rule: An event is not judged by the entirety of the experience, only pleasure/pain during peak and end.
74
Q

What is a defenition of memory in cognitive psychology?

A

Memory is defined as the cognitive process through which new information is encoded, stored and retrieved

75
Q

What can we state about sensory stores?

A
  • Information arriving from environment and are first placed here by the sensory organs
  • Low level: Shape, size, color
  • Large capacity
  • Extremely transient: information decays over a short period of time
  • If something caught attention: Information is transferred to the next store
76
Q

What are the different modalities (memories) in the sensory stores?

A
  • Iconic memor: Visual sensory store, holds visual information for about 300 ms- 1 sec
  • Echoic memory: Auditory sensory store, memory system holds auditory information up to 10 sec
  • Haptic memory: Holds tactile sensory information for about 2 seconds
77
Q

When is information transfered from sensory store to the short term memory/ working memory?

A

Through attention sensory information can be transferred to short term memory. The items must catch attention/ be reheased before it can be transferred.

78
Q

What are the processes of short term memory?

A
  • Encoding
  • Storage
  • Retrieval
79
Q

What are the different coding methods in the short term memory?

A
  • Phonological coding: Acousic coding (keep repeating the number)
  • Visual coding (visualizing it (both verbal + visual information can be coded visually)
80
Q

What can we say about storage and chunking in the Short term memory?

A
  • Storage: We can memorize appricmately 7 +/- 2 items, this number of items is the memory span
  • Chunking: recoding material into larger meaningful units and storing those units
81
Q

How can you lose/ forget information?

A
  • Decay (sensory stores): Memory trace fades away
  • Displacement (short-term): New information pushes out old
  • Interference (long-term): Information gets confused with already stored information
82
Q

How to make your design short term friendly

A
  • Chunk information into larger meaningful units
  • Avoid long lists
  • Allows users to bookmark/ star items
  • Make an order, organize (mind maps, mind trees)
83
Q

What does the long term memory do?

A

Store information from 1-2 minutes to a lifetime (encoding)

Stored in the long term memory from short term memory when they are rehearsed, or high in emotional arousal

84
Q

What are the types of coding in the long term memory?

A
  • Semantic coding: Generative meaningful links among items is effective for remembering (elaborative processing)
  • Phonological code: Recognizing someone’s voice, or a song
  • Visual code: remembering your room from your childhood
85
Q

What can we state about implicit memory?

A
  • Procedural memory: we can’t consciously recall it, it manifests itself through performance
  • Robust disorders often effect explicit memory wereas implicit memory remains intact (parkinson disease)
  • Age and IQ independent
  • Low individual variability
86
Q

Forgetting and remembering of long term memory:

A
  • Failure of retrieval (tip of the tongue phenomenon)
  • Retrieval cue (recognizing an item stored in LTM
  • Nostalgia (sentimentality for the past with happy personal associations/memories.
87
Q

What is lifelogging?

A
  • A technically inspired approach that attempts to adress the problem of human forgetting by developing systems that record everything.
88
Q

What are the different types of lifelogging?

A
  • Perdsonal digital repositories (Unifying infrastructure for managing heterogenous collection of digital objects that users have generated)
  • Mobile activity capture (Aims to capture useful information about what we are doing in the real world, through mobile life)
  • Domain specific capture (Capture rich data interactions in specific domains
89
Q

What problems exist with existing digital archives and lifelogging systems?

A
  • Rich records do not guarantee effective recall
  • Rich records impose organizational problems
  • Digital invisibility
  • Beyond factual recall
  • Digital tool are not always preferred
90
Q

What are the design principles for new digital systems to support memory?

A
  • Selection: simplify acces archives by making important items more salient
  • Embodiment: Imbue existing physical objects with compelling digital interactivity involving digital archives
  • Synergy not Substitution: Act in synergy with unaided memory, providing support in contexts where unaided memory is weak
  • Reminiscence and reflection: Support the processes of remniniscence and reflection in digital tools.
91
Q

What is learning/ conditioning?

A

Defined as relatively permanent behavior change as a results of experience or practice

NOT learning:

  • Behavior change due to maturation
  • Behavior change due to temporary conditions
92
Q

What are the types of learning?

A
  • Non-associative learning
  • Associative learning
  • Complex learning
93
Q

What is non-assosiative learning?

A

Single stimulus learning

  • A behavior in response to a stimulus change in the absence of any apparant associated stimulus or event (reward/punishment)
  • Short-lived learning effects, lasting for minutes or hours
  • All living organisms (from single cell to humans) are capable of NA learning
94
Q

What is habituation?

A
  • Novel stimuli elicit a behavorial response, this response decreases after repeated exposure (humming of the air-condition)
  • It is not sensory adapting (e.g. adapting to cold water)
  • In web design: banner blindness
95
Q

What is associative learning?

A

Two types:

Classical conditioning: Based on already existing responses, learning the co-occurence of events

  • Response generalization is the behavioral response to a novel stimuli that are similar to familiar ones
  • Dog showed the same response to a little higher bell sound
  • It’s very adaptive function in human beings

Instrumental conditioning: About learning new things, and the relationship between responses and outcomes

  • Law of effect: Behavior is followed by reinforcement, is strenghtened
  • Temporal relation: reward/ punishment after behavior, otherwise it may impede with learning
96
Q

What are the two types of reinforcers?

A
  • Primary reinforcers satisfy basic biologic drives (e.g. food)
  • Secondary reinforcers have been coditioned with a primary one (e.g. money, acknowledgment), they are used in gaming, social media etc.
97
Q

What is complex learning?

A

Forms of learning aimed at integrative goals, matched to skill level

98
Q

What is Flow according as used in the paper written by Kili (2005)?

A
  • Flow describes a state of complete absoprtion or engagement in an activity and refers to the optimal experience
  • During optimal (flow) experience a person is in a psychological state where he or she is so involved with the goal driven activity that nothing else seems to matter
99
Q

What are the factors of the PAT model?

A

A way to consider what really ingluences experincing flow

  • Person
  • Artifacts
  • Task
100
Q

What is gameplay?

A

One or more causally linked series of challenges in a simulated environment

  • Good gameplay keeps a player motivated and egaged throughout an entire game
  • In educational game design both dimensions, educational goals and gameplay, should be balanced in order to achieve a meaningful entity
  • Learning enviroments such as games allow students to discover new rules and ideas rather than memorizing the material -> higher motivation + engagement
101
Q

What are the types of problems a game can offer?

A
  • Well-sctructured (definitive answer)

- Ill-structured problems (unclear goals)

102
Q

What is the experiential learning theory?

A
  • Consists of four stages in the field of experiential learning
  • It states that learning begins with:
    A concrete experience
    Followed by collection of ddata
    Reflective observations about that exeperience
  • The model stresses the continuous nature of learning and the approapriate feedback which provides the basis for a continuous process of goal directed action.
103
Q

Issues that should be considered when designing educational games are?

A
  • Storytelling
  • Game balance
  • Optimizing cognitive load
104
Q

What can be defined as the core principle of cognitive psychology and neuroscience?

A

Cognitive task:

A hierarchy of goals, subordinate goal(s), stimulus-response action(s)

A response can be a motor action, or a mental operation

  • Complex vs simple tasks
  • Automatic vs effortful
105
Q

What is the effect of multitasking?

A

Combining multiple tasks is typically accomanied by performance costs:

  • Task switching: switching between tasks takes more time than repeating a task
  • Failure to pay sufficient attention to one of the tasks (failure to switch)
106
Q

What is the defenition of media multitasking?

A

Concurrent use of multiple digital media streams, or using a digital media stream while doing some non-media activity

107
Q

Where can media multitasking often be associated?

A
  • Physical health
  • Mental health
  • Personality
  • Academic performance
  • Cognition (e.g. attention, memory, learning)
108
Q

Working memory =

A

cognitive system with limited capacity for temporarily holding information to perform mental operations (task)

109
Q

WHat can be said about Heavy Media Multitasker (HMMs)?

A
  • Breadth-biased hypotheses: Chronic multitaskers are more attentive to irrelevant stimuli, thus less effective in filtering what enters the working memory
  • Low Media mmultitaskers have abetter ability to filter out irrelevant stimuli, and show better memroy of objects
110
Q

How do people expand their mental capacities?

A 
Through technological inventions which unclude: 
- Anny tool
- method
- or skill 
designed to facilitate daily functions
111
Q

What effect does the internet have on information processing of humans?

A
  • Non-linear attention shift
  • Reduced contemplation
  • Decreased information retention

This is cause by:

  • Hyptertext environments (hyperlinks stand out and increase visual processing)
  • Online information access (people rely on the internet for knowledge retrieval)
112
Q

What can the shift towards shallow information process mean for people?

A
  • Disrupt the development of deep reading skills (critical analyses, reflection)
  • Affect the development of these brain circuits
113
Q

Internet-related multitasking behaviors have been consistently linked with:

A
  • Increased distractibility during classroom learning

- Excutive control (HMMs are worse at inhibiting the processing of irrelevant stimuli.

114
Q

What are the main properties of the Internet’s appeal?

A
  • The typical content found on the internet (music, videos, and games)
  • Popular Internet activities (gaming, shopping, sexual interactions)
115
Q

What are the consequences of the rewards given by the internet?

A
  • Internet-related addictions (IA)

- Impaired self-control

116
Q

What are the effects of emotion becoming a bigger aspect in NMD?

A
  • Denotes transition of 2nd wave HCI to 3rde wave HCI
  • From Usabillity -> User experience
  • “design and emotion” movement

First cognition and emotion were seen as oppositional forces, now we know they operate jointly, some researchers even consider emotion as a part of cognition

117
Q

What is emotion?

A

A multicomponent affective response to some change in the way people interpret their circumstances.

118
Q

What are the basic components of emotion?

A
  • Physiological arousal
  • Cognitive appraisal
  • Subjective experiences
119
Q

What are the different theories of emotion components?

A

James-Lange physiological theory
Stimulus -> Physiological reaction -> emotional experience

Cannon-bard theory
Stimulus -> Physiological reaction
-> Emotional experience

Schachter-Singer two–factor theory
Stimulus -> Physiological reaction -> Emotional experience
-> Interpretation & label

Lazarus cognitive appraisal theory
Stimulus -> Cogntive apparaisal -> Emotional experience/ physiological reaction

120
Q

What are statements that can be made about the cognitive appraisal theory?

A
  • Emotions are extracted from our evaluations of an event
  • Most of the emotions are constructed in our mind (as opposed to being innate, psychological responses)
  • Appraisal can occur autiomattically (unconsciously) or consciously
121
Q

What is the nature of emotions?

A
  • Discrete emotions approach( Ekman, Izard): Small number of basic emotions that have a distinct physiological pattern, complex emotions are made of basic emotions (hapiness, fear, anger, disgust, surprise, sadness)
  • Dimensional approach: emotions can be mapped onto two or more dimensions (valence/Arousal)
122
Q

By what systems are bodily reactions controlled?

A

Two sub-systems of the autonomic nervous system

  1. Sympathetic nervous system
    - Bodily reaction in emergency situations
    - Intense physiological arousal
    - Fight or flight response
  2. Parasympathetic nervous system
    - Terturns the body to a normal state
    - Calming down effect
123
Q

Physiological measures are:

A
  • Skin conductance
  • Heart rate
  • Self-assesment manikin
124
Q

What are the emotional states that influences media selection (before interaction)?

A

Mood management theory:

  • Mood optimization through selective exposure to media
  • People may use media to rebound from negative emotions more quickly, as well as help them build a buffer
  • Not always a conscious choice
  • Social comparison theory: Seeing someone suffering relativizes our own suffering

Mood adjustment theory:
- People selecting messages fitting to their moods

125
Q

What emotions influence cognitions before and during interaction with media?

A
  • Arousal (Internse emotional experiences/messages are better remembered, 2-3 minute effect after bad news, information processing is lowered)
  • Valence (Findings are mixed, but suggest that postive messages are better remembered than negative messages)
126
Q

How does the valence of emotions affect our thinking?

A
  • Positive emotions broaden attentional focus
  • Negative emotions narrow down thinking and attention (less open minded, less accepting)
  • Congruency of own emotions and emotion in message attracts attention, and is remembered better
127
Q

How does arousal affect sharing after interaction with media?

A
  • The more intense the emotional experience or greater the emotional disruption, the more likely it is to be socially shared
  • Emotional experiences can be a stimulus for sharing experiences, which spreads not simply the information but the emotion associated with it to others
128
Q

How does the presentation of attributes affect the emotion?

A

The form and the content of the medium in which a message is delivered influence how a message is processed:

  • Content: The story, the characters, the plot
  • Non-content: Audio and visual structure of the medium
129
Q

What are the underlying motivational systems of emotional responses?

A

Both are activated without conscious control in repsonse to motivationally relevant things in the environment, one or both motivational system leads to an increase in emotional responses

  • Appetitive: Leads to positive feeling states
  • Aversive: Leads to negative feeling states
130
Q

Non-content features of media are..

A
  • Color (Hue,saturation, brightness)
  • Motion ( size, distance, speed, and relative position to other objects
  • Pacing (frequency of the occurerence of structural features in a message)
  • Camera angle and POV (High vs low angles, subjective/objective POV)
  • Narrative structure: (Story/content or frame/structure)
131
Q

What are presentation attributes?

A
  • Image size (larger images elicit more intense responses)
  • Control
  • Download speed
  • Image quality
132
Q

What is emotion according to Detenber & Lang (2010)?

A

Action tendencies stored in memory and retrieved in specific stimulus contexts, which is triggered by external responses

133
Q

What are the components of emotional action tendencies?

A
  • Stimulus proposition (Perceptual objects that people are exposed to)
  • Response propositions (appetitive and aversive acts and physiological responses
  • Meaning proposition (Imagery and interpretation combining the other two components)
134
Q

What are the approaches to studying emotions in terms of information-processing?

A
  • The stimulus-response model: Allows modification of the non-content features of emotion-elicit stimuli (in order to activate emotional responses)
  • Bio-informational approach: Conceptualizes emotion as dimensional construct
135
Q

What are the three dimesions underlying all emotions according to Detenber & Lang (2010)

A
  • Valence (direction of motivational activation, pleasant to unpleasant)
  • Arousal (intensity of activation; from thrilled to composed)
  • Dominance (people’s perception of control over a stimulus or situation

These dimensions are primarly used to organize the experiential aspects of emotion

136
Q

What is social coginition?

A

The understanding of other people’s minds

  • Impairment detrimental for subjective quality of life (autism, personality disorders)
  • Context dependent capability
137
Q

Where do you need social cognition for?

A
  • Essential for navigating interpersonal relationships

- Crucial for satisfactory quality interactions

138
Q

Social cognition with characters in (new) media is about:

A
  • Empathy vs sympathy
  • Involvement with characters ( Identification, Wishful identification, parasocial interaction)
  • Narrative engagement, because of involvement with characters
139
Q

What is the function of entertainment education?

A

= Incorporating educational message into (popular) entertainment content, to:

  • Create awareness, increase knowledge, favorable attitudes
  • Motivate people to take social responsibility + change in their behavior
140
Q

What is the relation between fictional narratives and social cognition?

A
  • Fiction as social simulation theory (Story comprehension, cinematic narratives improve empathy, theory of mind.)
  • Not much research with visual narratives yet
141
Q

What are the advantages of perspective taking?

A
  • Stereotype reduction
  • Learning
  • Improved interpersonal communication
142
Q

What are the downsides of perspective taking?

A
  • Mentally putting oneself in the shoes of another requires extensive cognitive effort
  • Individuals may differ in ability and motivation to engage in this activity
143
Q

What is Immersive Virtual Environment technology (IVET)?

A
  • Individuals are able to easily and effectively experience the world from antoher person’s point of view (=embodied experience)
  • IVET is a mediated environment simulated by digital computer technologies that blur the
    distinction between reality and its virtual representations.

-Rich layers of sensory information, users feel a high sense of presence, or the
perception that the mediated virtual environment is real

144
Q

What would vivid perceptual experiences encourage?

A
  • Greater oneness
  • More favorable attitude toward people with colorblindness
  • Helping behavior

There is evidence that IVET may be used as a tool to study perspective taking and promote helping

145
Q

What is user engagement?

A
  • User engagement refers to someting not directly observable
  • No clear defenition
  • Engagement, flow, immersion, presence, (cognitive) absorption
  • All these concepts refer to the same experience: a state of mind where all of our cognitive, effective and perceptual motor systems are dedicated to the same task/goal, we lose track of time and surroundings
146
Q

What is the engaged experience of users?

A
  • Flow
  • Immersion
  • Presence
  • Involvement
  • Absorption
  • Transportation
  • Narrative engagement
147
Q

What are the consequences of user engagement?

A
  • Repeating activity
  • Enjoyment
  • Positive attitudes
  • Enhanced learning outcomes
  • Enhanced performance
  • Sharing, recommending, adding
148
Q

From usability to UX, what does this mean?

A
  • Usability = Asses whether use interface is easy to use and meets requirements (effciency, effectiveness, satisfaction)
  • UX = understand deeper, personal experiences of the user (affect/ emotion, motivation, attitudes, attention)
149
Q

What is flow?

A

A state of mind of holostic sensation that people feel when they act with total involvement, feel at their best, perform at their best (optimal experience)

150
Q

What are the features of flow?

A
  • Challenge-skill based
  • Clear goals
  • Unambiguous / immediate feedback
  • Action-awareness merging (automaticity)
  • Concentration (top-down attention)
  • Sense of control
  • Loss of self-control
  • Transformation of time
  • Autotelic experience (intrinsically rewarding)
151
Q

What do we study with user engagement?

A
  • The “antecedent”factors of an engaging experience (What contributes to the likelihood of an optimal experience)
  • The nature of an engaging experience (What is an engaging experience, and how to measure?
  • The “consequences” of engaging experience (what impact does high engagement promise
152
Q

What are the characteristics of “Person”in the PAT model?

A

Traits:

  • Autotelic personality
  • Inherent exploratory behavior
  • Personal innovativeness
  • Cognitive spontaneity
  • Trait of absorption

State:

  • Mood
  • Motivation
  • Arousal
153
Q

What are the characterstics of “artefacts” that contribute to flow?

A
  • Aesthetics
  • Playfulness
  • Vividness
  • Speed of feedback/ responsiveness
154
Q

What are the characteristics of “task” that contribute to flow?

A
  • Goal-oriented (vs exploratory) tasks
  • Autonomy
  • Variety
  • Appropariate level of complexity
155
Q

What are example interactions of the PAT model?

A
  • Task-technology fit (task * artefact)
  • Clear task goals (person * task)
  • Sense of control over task (person * task)
  • Balance between skills + challenge (person * task)
156
Q

How is engagement measured?

A
  • Self report (biased, after-the-fact)
  • Behavior (measurements are proxies, more objective)
  • Objective measures: Psychophysiological outcomes (Skin conductance, heart rate, pupil dilation, electromyography)
157
Q

What is the defenition of engagement according to Oh, Bellur & Sundar (2015)?

A

To enter into a contact and to occupy that attention or involve effort for a long period of time

158
Q

What is the defenition of user-engagement according to Oh, Bellur & Sundar (2015)?

A

A strong cognitive and emotional focus on media content that completely immerses users in a mediated experience =

159
Q

The study conducted by Oh, Bellur & Sundar (2015) proposed a new definition for user engagement that includes:

A
  • A psychological state where the user appraises the quality of media and becomes absorbed in media content
  • A behavioral experience in which the user physically interacts with the interface and also socially distributes and manages the content
160
Q

What are the critical components of user engagement?

A

Physical interaction:

  • The amount of observable activity of users with the interface
  • In order to capture deliberate user actions

Interface assesment:

  • Users’ initial evaluation of the interface
  • Three criteria for evaluating interface: Natural mapping ability, intuitiveness, ease of use

Absorption:

  • Signals deeper involvement with the content
  • The individual is consciously involved in an interaction (with content), with alsmost complete attentional focus on the mediated enviroment

Digital outreach:

  • All possible forms of behavioral interaction with online content, including social transmission of the content, content management, repeated use of the content
  • Influenced by the three previous components of user engagement.
161
Q

What are User-engagement measurements from a behavioral perspective?

A
  • Clicking activity
  • Amount of time spent exploring carious interface features and associated content
  • Willingsness to manage the content and distribute or share such forms of engagement socially
162
Q

What are User-engagement measurements from a psychological perspective?

A
  • Subjective assessments of the interface itself as being natural, intuitive, and easy to use. Which than could enhance the perception of being absobed in the content.
163
Q

What are the off-loading methods when one or both channels overloaded by essential processing and representational holding?

A
  • Synchronizing: Present narration and corresponding animation simultaneously to minimize need to hold representations in memory
  • Individualizing: Make sure learners possess skill at holding mental representations

Research effect:

  • Temporal contiguity effect: Better transfer when corresponding animation and narration are presented simultaneously rather than succesively
  • Spatial ability effect: High spatial learners benefit more from well-designed instruction than do low spatial learners
164
Q

How to make your design Long term memory friendly?

A
  • Attach meaning to visuals/aesthetics: semantic processing is superior to perceptual processing
  • Connect new information to already stored information (metaphors, analogy)
  • Use retrieval cues, and easy to remember intuitive short cuts
165
Q

Advantages of Embodied experiences through virtual reality?

A
  • Increases helping behavior

- Better understanding of a certain perspective

166
Q

What is a dissadvantage of Embodied experience through IVET?

A
  • Individual idfferences might influence the effectiveness of certain experiences
  • Can be addictive
  • Can deteriorate human connections
  • Dificult to understand for technology illeterates
167
Q

What intrinsic motivations can motivate the usage of facebook (Intrinsic need satisfaction)?

A
  • Autonomy
  • Comptence
  • Relatedness

Human Media Interaction Theory (2 decks)

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