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A&P Semester 2 > Lectures 23 to 26 - Reproduction > Flashcards

Lectures 23 to 26 - Reproduction Flashcards

Final Exam Prep

1
Q

Define ‘corona radiata’

A

The innermost layer of granulosa cells that is firmly attached to the zona pellucida around a secondary oocyte.

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2
Q

Define ‘cumulus oophorus’

A

A mass of epithelial granulosa cells surrounding the oocyte in the maturing ovarian follicle.

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3
Q

Define ‘gamete’

A

A male or female reproductive cell; a sperm cell or secondary oocyte.

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4
Q

Define ‘fertilization’

A

Penetration of a secondary oocyte by a sperm cell, meiotic division of a secondary oocyte to form an ovum, and subsequent union of the nuclei of the gametes.

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5
Q

Define ‘oogenesis’

A

Formation and development of female gametes (oocytes).

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6
Q

Define ‘ovarian cycle’

A

The normal sex cycle of the ovaries that includes: 1) the follicular phase - development of an ovarian (graafian) follicle 2) ovulation - rupture of the follicle with discharge of the ovum 3) the luteal phase - formation and regression of a corpus luteum.

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7
Q

Define ‘menstrual cycle’

A

The period in which an ovum matures, is ovulated, and enters the uterine lumen through the fallopian tubes; ovarian hormonal secretions effect endometrial changes in preparation for fertilization and implantation; in the absence of fertilization, ovarian secretions wane, the endometrium sloughs, and menstruation begins. This cycle lasts an average of 28 days, with day 1 of the cycle designated as that day on which menstrual flow begins.

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8
Q

Define ‘ovulation’

A

The rupture of a mature ovarian (graafian) follicle with discharge of a secondary oocyte into the pelvic cavity.

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9
Q

Define ‘sperm’

A

A mature male gamete. Also termed spermatozoon

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10
Q

Define ‘oogonium’

A

A diploid stem cell that arises from a primordial germ cell and differentiates into an oocyte in the ovary.

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11
Q

Define ‘chromosome’

A

One of the small, threadlike structures in the nucleus of a cell, normally 46 in a human diploid cell, that bears the genetic material. Composed of DNA and proteins (histones) that form a delicate chromatin thread during interphase; becomes packaged into compact rodlike structures that are visible under the light microscope during cell division.

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12
Q

Define ‘meiosis’

A

A type of cell division that occurs during production of gametes, involving two successive nuclear divisions that result in cells with the haploid (n) number of chromosomes.

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13
Q

Define ‘puberty’

A

The time of life during which the secondary sex characteristics begin to appear and the capability for sexual reproduction is possible; usually occurs between the ages of 10 and 17.

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14
Q

Define ‘primary oocyte’

A

An oocyte during its growth phase and before it completes the first meiotic division.

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15
Q

Define ‘secondary oocyte’

A

An oocyte in which the first meiotic division is completed; the second meiotic division usually stops short of completion unless fertilization occurs.

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16
Q

Define ‘primary ovarian follicle’

A

An immature follicle consisting of the oocyte surrounded by a single layer of tall supporting (granulosa) cells.

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17
Q

Define ‘ovary’

A

Female gonad that produces oocytes and the estrogen, progesterone, inhibin, and relaxin hormones.

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18
Q

Define ‘follicular phase’

A

The portion of the menstrual cycle in which the ovarian follicle develops and matures. This half of the menstrual cycle begins on the first day of menses and ends with ovulation. The follicular phase is characterized by a gradual rise in the steroid hormone estrogen.

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19
Q

Define ‘luteal phase’

A

The portion of the menstrual cycle in which the corpus luteum forms and matures. This half of the menstrual cycle begins with ovulation and ends when menstruation begins. The luteal phase is characterized by a gradual rise in the steroid hormone progesterone.

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20
Q

Define ‘corpus luteum’

A

A yellowish body in the ovary formed when a follicle has discharged its secondary oocyte; secretes estrogens, progesterone, relaxin, and inhibin.

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21
Q

Define ‘follicle’

A

A small secretory sac or cavity; the group of cells that contains a developing oocyte in the ovaries.

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22
Q

Define ‘progesterone’

A

A female sex hormone produced by the ovaries that helps prepare the endometrium of the uterus for implantation of a fertilized ovum and the mammary glands for milk secretion.

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23
Q

Define ‘uterus’

A

The hollow, muscular organ in females that is the site of menstruation, implantation, development of the fetus, and labor.

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24
Q

Define ‘endometrium’

A

The mucous membrane comprising the inner layer of the uterine wall; it consists of a simple columnar epithelium and a lamina propria that contains simple tubular uterine glands.

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25
Q

Define ‘granulosa cells’

A

Somatic cells that surround the oocyte, providing it with the physical support and nutrients needs for proper oocyte development.

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26
Q

Define ‘secondary ovarian follicle’

A

A maturing ovarian follicle consisting of the oocyte surrounded by two or more layers of tall supporting (granulosa) cells.

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27
Q

Define ‘mature follicle’

A

The most mature ovarian follicle stage. Characterized by its large diameter and the presence of a liquid-filled space, or antrum, containing a secondary oocyte and surrounding granulosa cells that secrete estrogens. Also called an antral, Graafian, or vesicular follicle.

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28
Q

Define ‘primordial follicle’

A

The most immature stage of ovarian follicle development. The primordial follicle consists of the oocyte surrounded by a single layer of flat supporting (granulosa) cells.

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29
Q

Define ‘zona pellucida’

A

Clear glycoprotein layer between a secondary oocyte and the surrounding granulosa cells of the corona radiata; important in inducing the acrosome reaction during fertilization and preventing polyspermy.

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30
Q

Define ‘follicular antrum’

A

The portion of an ovarian follicle filled with liquor folliculi. Appearance of the follicular antrum during follicular maturation is the first sign that a follicle has reached the next stage of maturation, changing from a primary follicle to a secondary follicle.

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31
Q

Define ‘polar body’

A

The product of asymmetric cell division that occurs during meiosis. Both phases of meiosis produce a polar body, and the final result of completed meiosis is two polar bodies and one haploid egg.

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32
Q

Define ‘estrogens’

A

Female steroid sex hormones produced by the ovaries and, in small amounts, in the adrenal cortex, male testes, and the placenta; govern development of oocytes, maintenance of female reproductive structures, and appearance of secondary sex characteristics; also affect fluid and electrolyte balance, and protein anabolism. Examples are beta-estradiol, estrone, and estriol.

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33
Q

Define ‘hypothalamus’

A

A portion of the diencephalon, lying beneath the thalamus and forming the floor and part of the wall of the third ventricle.

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34
Q

Define ‘GnRH - gonadotrophin releasing hormone’

A

A hormone secreted in pulses by the hypothalamus, which stimulates the synthesis of gonadotrophins by the pituitary gland.

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35
Q

Define ‘FSH - follicle stimulating hormone’

A

A gonadotropin secreted by the anterior pituitary; it initiates development of ova and stimulates the ovaries to secrete estrogens in females, and initiates sperm production in males.

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36
Q

Define ‘LH - luteinizing hormone’

A

A gonadotropin secreted by the anterior pituitary that stimulates ovulation, stimulates progesterone secretion by the corpus luteum, and readies the mammary glands for milk secretion in females; stimulates testosterone secretion by the testes in males.

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37
Q

Define ‘pituitary gland’

A

A small endocrine gland occupying the hypophyseal fossa of the sphenoid bone and attached to the hypothalamus by the infundibulum; responds to signals from the hypothalamus to produce and release hormones that control other organs and body processes; responds to signals from the hypothalamus. The anterior pituitary secretes hormones that control physiological processes including growth, reproduction and stress. The posterior pituitary secretes hormones involves with water balance and uterine contractions during labor.

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38
Q

Define ‘stratum functionalis’

A

The stratum compactum and stratum spongiosum combine to make up this layer of the endometrium next to the uterine cavity that is shed during menstruation and that forms the maternal portion of the placenta during gestation.

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39
Q

Define ‘uterine glands’

A

The epithelial glandular compartment of the endometrium, which is contiguous with the luminal epithelium. The glands synthesise and secrete most of the protein and other components of uterine fluid (histotroph). Glandular secretions are necessary for embryo implantation.

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40
Q

Define ‘stratum basalis’

A

The layer of the endometrium next to the myometrium that is maintained during menstruation and gestation and produces a new stratum functionalis following menstruation or parturition.

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41
Q

Define ‘myometrium’

A

The smooth muscle layer of the uterus.

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42
Q

Define ‘endometrial stroma’

A

The connective tissue that forms the foundation, or framework of the uterus.

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43
Q

Define ‘endometrial strata’

A

The layers of endometrial tissue which include the stratum functionalis (stratum compactum + stratum spongiosum) and the stratum basalis.

44
Q

Define ‘uterine cycle’

A

The normal sex cycle of the uterus that includes: 1) menstruation - shedding of the stratum functionalis 2) the proliferative phase - development of the endometrium. 3) secretory phase - readying the endometrium for implantation of the blastocyst

45
Q

Define ‘menstruation’

A

The periodic discharge of blood, tissue fluid, mucus, and epithelial cells that usually lasts for 5 days; caused by a sudden reduction in estrogens and progesterone.

46
Q

Define ‘proliferative phase’

A

The second stage of the uterine cycle - as the ovarian follicles mature they secrete increasing amounts of estradiol, and estrogen, initiating the formation of a new layer of endometrium in the uterus.

47
Q

Define ‘secretory phase’

A

The third stage of the uterine cycle - corresponding to the luteal phase of the ovarian cycle, the corpus luteum produces progesterone which increases blood flow and uterine secretions and reduces contractility of the smooth muscle in the uterus, making the endometrium receptive to implantation of the blastocyst and supportive of the early pregnancy.

48
Q

Define ‘corpus hemorrhagicum’

A

A temporary structure formed from the ovarian follicle immediately after ovulation. After the trauma heals, the subsequent structure is called the corpus luteum.

49
Q

Define ‘corpus albicans’

A

A white fibrous patch in the ovary that forms after the corpus luteum regresses.

50
Q

Define ‘placenta’

A

The special structure through which the exchange of materials between fetal and maternal circulations occurs.

51
Q

Define ‘hCG - human chorionic gonadotropin’

A

A hormone produced by the developing placenta that maintains the corpus luteum.

52
Q

Define ‘acrosome’

A

A lysosome-like organelle in the head of a sperm cell containing enzymes that facilitate the penetration of a sperm cell into a secondary oocyte.

53
Q

Define ‘head of the sperm’

A

The part of the sperm containing the nucleus with haploid number of chromosomes, and an acrosome.

54
Q

Define ‘midpiece of the sperm’

A

The part of the sperm containing centrioles that produce microtubles for the tail, mitochodria that produce ATP for locomotion and metabolism.

55
Q

Define ‘tail of the sperm’

A

The part of the sperm responsible for flagellar motility.

56
Q

Define ‘spermatozoa’

A

The mature male reproductive cell that carries the paternal haploid genome; are fully formed when they leave the testis, but must undergo additional maturation processes in the epididymis and female reproductive tract (capacitation) before they are capable of fertilizing an egg.

57
Q

Define ‘spermatogonium’

A

A male germ cell along the basement membrane of the seminiferous tubule in the testis that divides by mitosis. When spermatogonia stop dividing mitotically and enter meiosis, they become spermatocytes.

58
Q

Define ‘semen’

A

A fluid discharged at ejaculation by a male that consists of a mixture of sperm and the secretions of the seminiferous tubules, seminal vesicles, prostate, and bulbourethral glands.

59
Q

Define ‘prostate’

A

A doughnut-shaped gland inferior to the urinary bladder that surrounds the superior portion of the male urethra and secretes a slightly acidic solution that contributes to sperm motility and viability.

60
Q

Define ‘seminal vesicles’

A

One of a pair of convoluted, pouchlike structures, lying posterior and inferior to the urinary bladder and anterior to the rectum, that secrete a component of semen into the ejaculatory ducts.

61
Q

Define ‘spermatogenesis

A

The formation and development of sperm in the seminiferous tubules of the testes.

62
Q

Define ‘bulbourethral gland’

A

One of a pair of glands located inferior to the prostate on either side of the urethra that secretes an alkaline fluid into the cavernous urethra.

63
Q

Define ‘prostaglandin’

A

A membrane-associated lipid; released in small quantities and acts as a local hormone.

64
Q

Define ‘testis (testicle)’

A

Male gonad that produces sperm and the hormones testosterone and inhibin.

65
Q

Define ‘cervix’

A

Neck; any constricted portion of an organ, such as the inferior cylindrical part of the uterus.

66
Q

Define ‘uterine (fallopian) tube’

A

Duct that transports ova from the ovary to the uterus. Also called the oviduct.

67
Q

Progesterone helps to maintain the developed endometrium and quiet the myometrium. Which structure predominantly produces progesterone after ovulation? a) Secondary follicle b) Oocyte c) Corpus luteum d) Corpus hemorragicum e) Anterior pituitary

A

c) Corpus luteum

68
Q

What are the groups of reproductive organs in males, and what are the functions of each group?

A

The gonads (testes) produce gametes (sperm) and hormones; the ducts transport, store, and receive gametes; the accessory sex glands secrete materials that support gametes; and the penis assists in the delivery and joining of gametes. Figure 28.1

69
Q

Which muscles help regulate the temperature of the testes?

A

The cremaster and dartos muscles help regulate the temperature of the testes. Figure 28.2

70
Q

What tissue layers cover and protect the testes?

A

The tunica vaginalis and tunica albuginea are tissue layers that cover and protect the testes. Figure 28.3

71
Q

Which cells secrete testosterone?

A

The Leydig (interstitial) cells of the testes secrete testosterone. Figure 28.4

72
Q

What is the outcome of meiosis I?

A

As a result of meiosis I, the number of chromosomes in each cell is reduced by half. Figure 28.5

73
Q

What are the functions of each part of the sperm cell?

A

The sperm head contains the nucleus with 23 highly condensed chromosomes and an acrosome that contains enzymes for penetration of a secondary oocyte; the neck contains centrioles that produce microtubules for the rest of the tail; the midpiece contains mitochondria for ATP production for locomotion and metabolism; the principal and end pieces of the tail provide motility. Figure 28.6

74
Q

Which cells secrete inhibin?

A

Sertoli cells secrete inhibin. Figure 28.7

75
Q

Which hormones inhibit secretion of FSH and LH by the anterior pituitary?

A

Testosterone inhibits secretion of LH, and inhibin inhibits secretion of FSH. Figure 28.8

76
Q

What accessory sex gland contributes the majority of the seminal fluid?

A

The seminal vesicles are the accessory sex glands that contribute the largest volume to seminal fluid. Figure 28.9

77
Q

Which tissue masses form the erectile tissue in the penis, and why do they become rigid during sexual arousal?

A

Two tissue masses called the corpora cavernosa penis and one corpus spongiosum penis contain blood sinuses that fill with blood that cannot flow out of the penis as quickly as it flows in. The trapped blood engorges and stiffens the tissue, producing an erection. The corpus spongiosum penis keeps the spongy urethra open so that ejaculation can occur. Figure 28.10

78
Q

Which structures in males are homologous to the ovaries, the clitoris, the paraurethral glands, and the greater vestibular glands?

A

The testes are homologous to the ovaries; the glans penis is homologous to the clitoris; the prostate is homologous to the paraurethral glands; and the bulbourethral glands are homologous to the greater vestibular glands. Figure 28.11

79
Q

To which structures do the mesovarium, ovarian ligament, and suspensory ligament anchor the ovary?

A

The mesovarium anchors the ovary to the broad ligament of the uterus and the uterine tube; the ovarian ligament anchors it to the uterus; the suspensory ligament anchors it to the pelvic wall. Figure 28.12

80
Q

What structures in the ovary contain endocrine tissue, and what hormones do they secrete?

A

Ovarian follicles secrete estrogens; the corpus luteum secretes progesterone, estrogens, relaxin, and inhibin. Figure 28.13

81
Q

What happens to most ovarian follicles?

A

Most ovarian follicles undergo atresia (degeneration). Figure 28.14

82
Q

How does the age of a primary oocyte in a female compare with the age of a primary spermatocyte in a male?

A

Primary oocytes are present in the ovary at birth, so they are as old as the woman. In males, primary spermatocytes are continually being formed from stem cells (spermatogonia) and thus are only a few days old. Figure 28.15

83
Q

Where does fertilization usually occur?

A

Fertilization most often occurs in the ampulla of the uterine tube. Figure 28.16

84
Q

What types of cells line the uterine tubes?

A

Ciliated columnar epithelial cells and nonciliated (peg) cells with microvilli line the uterine tubes. Figure 28.17

85
Q

What structural features of the endometrium and myometrium contribute to their functions?

A

The endometrium is a highly vascularized, secretory epithelium that provides the oxygen and nutrients needed to sustain a fertilized egg; the myometrium is a thick smooth muscle layer that supports the uterine wall during pregnancy and contracts to expel the fetus at birth. Figure 28.18

86
Q

What is the functional significance of the stratum basalis of the endometrium?

A

The stratum basalis of the endometrium provides cells to replace those that are shed (the stratum functionalis) during each menstruation. Figure 28.19

87
Q

What surface structures are anterior to the vaginal opening? Lateral to it?

A

Anterior to the vaginal opening are the mons pubis, clitoris, prepuce, and external urethral orifice. Lateral to the vaginal opening are the labia minora and labia majora. Figure 28.20

88
Q

Why is the anterior portion of the perineum called the urogenital triangle?

A

The anterior portion of the perineum is called the urogenital triangle because its borders form a triangle that encloses the urethral (uro-) and vaginal (-genital) orifices. Figure 28.21

89
Q

What hormones regulate the synthesis and ejection of milk?

A

Prolactin, estrogens, and progesterone regulate the synthesis of milk. Oxytocin regulates the ejection of milk. Figure 28.22

90
Q

Of the several estrogens, which one exerts the major effect?

A

The principal estrogen is beta-estradiol. Figure 28.23

91
Q

Which hormones are responsible for the proliferative phase of endometrial growth, for ovulation, for growth of the corpus luteum, and for the surge of LH at midcycle?

A

The hormones responsible for the proliferative phase of endometrial growth are estrogens; for ovulation, LH; for growth of the corpus luteum, LH; and for the midcycle surge of LH, estrogens. Figure 28.24

92
Q

What is the effect of rising but still moderate levels of estrogens on the secretion of GnRH, LH, and FSH?

A

The effect of rising but moderate levels of estrogens is negative feedback inhibition of the secretion of GnRH, LH, and FSH. Figure 28.25

93
Q

When declining levels of estrogens and progesterone stimulate secretion of GnRH, is this a positive or a negative feedback effect? Why?

A

This is negative feedback, because the response is opposite to the stimulus. A reduced amount of negative feedback due to declining levels of estrogens and progesterone stimulates release of GnRH, which in turn increases the production and release of FSH and LH, ultimately stimulating the secretion of estrogens. Figure 28.26

94
Q

Which gene is responsible for the development of the gonads into testes?

A

The SRY gene on the Y chromosome is responsible for the development of the gonads into testes. Figure 28.27

95
Q

Which hormone is responsible for the differentiation of the external genitals?

A

The presence of dihydrotestosterone (DHT) stimulates differentiation of the external genitals in males; its absence allows differentiation of the external genitals in females. Figure 28.28

96
Q

The period of time when secondary sexual characteristics begin to develop and the potential for sexual reproduction is reached is called _____. The first menses is called _____, and the permanent cessation of menses is called _____.

A

Puberty Menarche Menopause

97
Q

True or false: Spermatogenesis does not occur at normal core body temperature.

A

True

98
Q

What is the route of sperm from the production in the testes to the exterior of the body?

A

Seminiferous tubules Straight tubules Rete testes Epididymis, Ductus (vas) deferens, Ejaculatory duct, Prostatic urethra, Membranous urethra, Spongy urethra, External urethral orifice

99
Q

Which of the following are functions of Sertoli cells? 1) protection of developing spermatogenic cells 2) nourishment of spermatocytes, spermatids, and sperm 3) phagocytosis of excess sperm cytoplasm as development proceeds 4) mediation of the effects of testosterone and FSH 5) control of movements of spermatogenic cells and release of sperm into the lumen of seminiferous tubules.

A

All are functions of Sertoli cells

100
Q

Which of the following are true? 1) An erection is a sympathetic response initiated by sexual stimulation. 2) Dilation of blood vessels supplying erectile tissue results in erection. 3) Nitric oxide causes smooth muscle within erectile tissue to relax, which results in widening of blood sinuses. 4) Ejaculation is a sympathetic reflex coordinated by the sacral region of the spinal cord. 5) The purpose of the corpus cavernosa penis is to keep the spongy urethra open during ejaculation.

A

The following are true: 2) Dilation of blood vessels supplying erectile tissue results in erection. 3) Nitric oxide causes smooth muscle within erectile tissue to relax, which results in widening of blood sinuses.

101
Q

Which of the following are true concerning estrogens? 1) They promote development and maintenance of female reproductive structures and secondary sex characteristics. 2) They help control fluid and electrolyte balance. 3) They increase protein catabolism. 4) They lower blood cholesterol. 5) In moderate levels, they inhibit the release of GnRH and the secretion of LH and FSH.

A

The following are true concerning estrogens: 1) They promote development and maintenance of female reproductive structures and secondary sex characteristics. 4) They lower blood cholesterol. 5) In moderate levels, they inhibit the release of GnRH and the secretion of LH and FSH.

102
Q

Which of the following statements are correct? 1) A sperm head contains DNA and an acrosome. 2) An acrosome is a specialized lysosome that contains enzymes that enable sperm to produce the ATP needed to propel themselves out of the male reproductive tract. 3) Mitochondria in the midpiece of a sperm produce ATP for sperm motility. 4) A sperm’s tail, a flagellum, propels it along its way. 5) Once ejaculated, sperm are viable and normally are able to fertilize a secondary oocyte for 5 days.

A

The following statements are correct: 1) A sperm head contains DNA and an acrosome. 3) Mitochondria in the midpiece of a sperm produce ATP for sperm motility. 4) A sperm’s tail, a flagellum, propels it along its way.

103
Q

Which of the following statements are correct? 1) Spermatogonia are stem cells because when they undergo mitosis, some of the daughter cells remain to serve as a reservoir of cells for future mitosis. 2) Meiosis I is a division of pairs of chromosomes resulting in daughter cells with only one member of each chromosome pair. 3) Meiosis II separates the chromatids of each chromosome. 4) Spermiogenesis involves the maturation of spermatids into sperm. 5) The process by which the seminiferous tubules produce haploid sperm is called spermatogenesis.

A

All statements are correct

104
Q

Which of the following statements are correct? 1) Cells from the yolk sac give rise to oogonia. 2) Ova arise from the germinal epithelium of the ovary. 3) Primary oocytes enter prophase of meiosis I during fetal development but do not complete it until after puberty. 4) Once a secondary oocyte is formed, it proceeds to metaphase of meiosis II and stops at this stage. 5) The secondary oocyte resumes meiosis II and forms the ovum and a polar body only if fertilization occurs.

A

The following statements are correct: 1) Cells from the yolk sac give rise to oogonia. 3) Primary oocytes enter prophase of meiosis I during fetal development but do not complete it until after puberty. 4) Once a secondary oocyte is formed, it proceeds to metaphase of meiosis II and stops at this stage. 5) The secondary oocyte resumes meiosis II and forms the ovum and a polar body only if fertilization occurs.

105
Q

Which of the following statements are correct? 1) The female reproductive cycle consists of a menstrual phase, a preovulatory phase, ovulation, and a postovulatory phase. 2) During the menstrual phase, small secondary follicles in the ovary begin to enlarge while the uterus is shedding its lining. 3) During the preovulatory phase, a dominant follicle continues to grow and begins to secrete estrogens and inhibin while the uterine lining begins to rebuild. 4) Ovulation results in the release of an ovum and the shedding of the uterine lining to nourish and support the released ovum. 5) If pregnancy does not occur, then the corpus luteum degenerates into a scar called the corpus albicans, and the uterine lining is prepared to be shed again.

A

The following statements are correct: 1) The female reproductive cycle consists of a menstrual phase, a preovulatory phase, ovulation, and a postovulatory phase. 2) During the menstrual phase, small secondary follicles in the ovary begin to enlarge while the uterus is shedding its lining. 3) During the preovulatory phase, a dominant follicle continues to grow and begins to secrete estrogens and inhibin while the uterine lining begins to rebuild. 5) If pregnancy does not occur, then the corpus luteum degenerates into a scar called the corpus albicans, and the uterine lining is prepared to be shed again.

106
Q

Which of the following is true? Oral contraceptives work by: 1) causing a thickening of the cervical mucus 2) blocking the uterine tubes 3) inhibiting the release of FSH and LH 4) preventing ovulation 5) disrupting the plasma membranes of sperm 6) irritating the endometrial lining so that it is inhospitable for fetal development.

A

Oral contraceptives work by: 1) causing a thickening of the cervical mucus 3) inhibiting the release of FSH and LH 4) preventing ovulation

A&P Semester 2 (3 decks)

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