Lectures 15, 16 - LGB: sexual orientation beliefs and social determinants of mental health Flashcards
What is sexual orientation essentialism?
A belief that one’s sexual orientation is:
- innate
- immutable (unchangeable)
- fixed across lifespan
- universal across culture and time
- exists in discrete categories (gay, straight (no spectrum))
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Twin studies e.g. Bailey & Pillard (1991) behaviour genetics sexual orientation.
52% concordance in sexual orientation between MZ
twins (male)
22% concordance in sexual orientation between DZ
twins (male)
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Gay gene, Hamer (1993; 1995)
X linked marker (Xq28 region) of male homosexuality. Replicated by Bailey et al., (2014)
more common in homosexual males
looks like there is something to it
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Fraternal birth order effect:
Blanchard, 1996
Latter born sons more likely to be gay (to same mother)
(only for biological sons, not adopted, younger bros or any sisters matter)
uteran response effect child?
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Neuroanamtomical:
LeVay (1991)
neuroanatomical differences between gay vs. straight men in INAH3 (mating behaviour and sexually dimorphic, looked more female in gays)
Are essentialist theories of sexual orientation useful for stigma reduction? Discuss.
LGB people will be viewed as less blame-worthy when their stigmatised status is perceived to be beyond their control (i.e., due to a “gay gene”) than when perceived to be controllable (i.e., due to learning, environmental factors, choice)
However it is likely to produce more stigma against bisexuals, as they do not form a discrete category?
What is the attribution theory, in the context of stigma?
Weiner, Perry, & Magnusson, 1988
“the perceived cause of the stigma determines affective reactions to the stigmatized person”
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Gullup
more ppl since 2011 Americans think more now born than choice (was it lady gagas albumn?)
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Haslam & Levy, 2006; Jayaratne et al., 2006; Haider-Markel, 2008
Those who perceive homosexuality as genetic/immutable/uncontrollable
- more supportive of constitution amendment to legalise same- sex marriage
- morally acceptable lifestyle
- support equal legal rights for cohabiting same-sex couples
- equal employment rights
- less homonegativity
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Safe schools?
Corellational evidence, what about experimental data?
Do essentialist accounts of sexual orientation really cause pro-LGB+ attitudes?
Explain why / why not.
(Piskur & Degelman, 1992) (Pratarelli & Donaldson, 1997) (Oldham & Kasser, 1992) (Hegarty, 2002) (Boysen & Vogel, 2007)
Experimental findings have been inconsistent
– Improved attitudes (Piskur & Degelman, 1992)
– Null effect (Pratarelli & Donaldson, 1997)
– More negative attitudes (Oldham & Kasser, 1992)
Why?
- “Born this way” beliefs have become symbolic markers of one’s pro-LGB+ politics, not causes (Hegarty, 2002)
- Biased assimilation and attitude polarisation (Boysen & Vogel, 2007)
chose argument that suits ur agenda
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Does learning biological explanations of homosexuality reduce prejudice?
(Boysen & Vogel, 2007)
- Biased assimilation is the tendency to evaluate belief-consistent information more positively than belief-inconsistent information.
- Attitude Polarisation is strengthening of one’s initial belief or attitude in response to ambiguous or contradictory evidence.
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Haslam & Levy, 2006
Factor 1: immuntability => more +
Factor 2: Discreteness => more negative attitudes toward LGB+ (increases isolation, in/out group)
These were the strongest predictors of LGB attitude
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3rd problem
Hubbard & de Vissor, 2015
Privilages certain groups over others i.e. gay and lesbian over bisexuals.
when bisexuals seen as discrete - seen as much more negative
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What is essentialist theories are not congruent with some peoples lives?
Diamond 2005;2008
Female Sexual Fluidity
‘unqueer’ refuse of labels
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discreteness beliefs linked to greater internalised homophobia in gay men
Morandini, J. S., Blaszczynski, A., Ross, M. W., Costa, D. S., & Dar-Nimrod, I. (2015). Essentialist beliefs, sexual identity uncertainty, internalized homonegativity and psychological wellbeing in gay men. Journal of counseling psychology, 62(3), 413.
rare and abo soething phonoenemodsfamsd
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Morandini, J. S., Blaszczynski, A., Costa, D. S., Godwin, A., & Dar-Nimrod, I. (2017). Born This Way: Sexual Orientation Beliefs a and Their Correlates in Lesbian and Bisexual Women. Journal of counseling psychology.
Lesbian (n=393) and Bisexual women (n=205)
– immutability beliefs predict less internalized homophobia
– discreteness linked to > internalised homophobia
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Conclusions for LGB+
- The ethical desirability of a behaviour is not determined by its causes, but by its consequences
- Non-heterosexual attractions, identities, and behaviours in-and-of-themselves don’t cause harm
- Essentialist theories don’t always improve attitudes to LGB+ individuals
- The study of the causes of sexual orientation shouldn’t be assumed to have any social or ethical implications for the treatment of LGB+ people….it’s interesting in-and-of- itself
How did Freud explain the cause of lesbianism?
Female oedipus complex, penis envy; overall developmental arrest in psychosexual development
How did Bieber and Socarides explain male homosexuality?
How did this influence the practice of psychology?
- belief that an overbearing mother and absent father led to homosexuality in some men
- belief this could be corrected
- led to development of aversion therapy (pairing homosexual stimulants with electric shocks)
- and inclusion of homosexuality in DSM
Which volume and in which year was homosexuality removed from the DSM?
DSM-II in 1973
List some mental health disorders experienced by lesbian, gay and bisexuals?
How much more prevalent are each of these disorders among LGB vs. heterosexual counterparts?
King et al. (2008).
■ depression and anxiety (3 times)
■ suicidal ideation (4 times )
■ suicide attempts (8 times)
■ substance misuse (4 times)
What are some other mental health issues within the lesbian and bisexual population of women?
the Australian longitudinal study of women’s health
- (Hiller et al., 2003)
- (McNair et al., 2005)
■ higher rates of smoking, alcohol abuse and illicit drug use amongst lesbian and bisexual women
(Hiller et al., 2003)
■ younger lesbian and bisexual women higher depression, anxiety & self-harm/suicidality
(McNair et al., 2005)
What is the minority stress hypothesis?
Judd Marmor (1980)
It is not because an individual is LGB that they are “neurotically disturbed” but rather they suffer from an impaired self-image and some degree of unhappiness because of their stigmatised status.
Note: response from community are SOCIALLY DETERMINED
How many Australian’s do not believe that homosexuality is okay?
1/5
According to the minority stress hypothesis, what are the different stressors affecting LGB peoples?
- general life stressors
- distal minority stress processes
- proximal minority stress processes
What is a protective/ameliorative factor against distal and proximal minority stress?
Give an example and explain how it can help.
Social support and coping
In particular, connectedness with LGBQ community (group-level coping)
■ allows experience of social environments where not stigmatised
■ support against stigma and discrimination
■ disconfirmation of negative stereotypes about other LGB’s
■ allows social comparisons with like others
What are distal stressors?
Distal stressors: prejudiced events
- exists on a continuum - violence/”hate crimes” through to anti-gay slurs and acts of social exclusion
■ formal (i.e., legal/institutional discrimination) sodomy laws, marriage act, employment discrimination, etc.)
■ informal: exclusion by family/peer group/religious community, anti-gay verbal and physical victimisation, etc.
What are proximal stressors?
Name three proximal stressors identified by Meyer (2003).
“internal stress processes that have their grounding in the realities of stereotypes, prejudice and discrimination” (Meyer, 2003)
- perceived stigma
- concealment of identity
- internalised homophobia
What is internalised homophobia?
List some examples of how this may effect someone?
Williamson, 2000
The internalisation of negative societal attitudes about homosexuality/bisexuality (biphobia)
A person who has internalised homophobia or biphobia may experience:
■ discomfort disclosing sexual orientation
■ disconnectedness from other LGB’s
■ discomfort with same-sex sexual behaviour
■ attempts to change one’s sexuality (in extreme cases)
■ inner conflict, lowered self-esteem, self-depreciating attitudes (Williamson, 2000)
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Add in correlates
with internalised homophobia
- age
- religiosity
- lower income
- rural locality (in men) (Morandnini et al 2015) (in Aus. but not for women, maybe rural culture just emphasises male gender roles more so than females)
- anti- effeminacy attitudes in gay men (Sanchez and Villian 2012) (maybe coz challenges their own masculinity ideals?)
Explain what leads to stress related psychopathology?
Prejudiced events > trauma, hyper vigilance to threat
> perceptions of vulnerability > social marginalisation
What are some prejudiced events experienced by LGB people and the % of those who have experienced it?
(GLSEN, 1999; Kosciw, Diaz & Greytak, 2009)
verbal harassment (61%) sexual harassment (47%) physical harassment (28%) physical assault (14%)
What is the internalised homophobia short form (IHS)
Ross and Rosser (1995)
psychological test that determined your level of internalised homophobia
What are the challenges to the minority stress hypothesis?
Hatzenbuehler, 2009
(Savin-Williams et al., 2011)
○ support is mostly correlational/cross-sectional (cannot find causality)
○ non-representative sampling
○ failure to delineate the mechanisms via which minority stress > mental health difficulties (Hatzenbuehler, 2009)
○ are mental health discrepancies among male sexual orientation groups illusory due to inappropriate group comparisons? (Savin-Williams et al., 2011) - may be more suitable to compare to straight women?
More suitable for situations in which nonheterosexual men are assessed on sexually dimorphic variables – such as depression?
What is the gender inversion hypothesis?
What evidence supports this?
(Lippa, 2003; 2005; 2008) (Rieger, 2008) (Zucker, 2008) (Vassey, 2016) (LeVay, 1991)
That homosexual men are just like straight women in the wrong bodies and vice versa for lesbians.
On average, gay men demonstrate a range of sex atypical biological and behavioural traits
Behavioural:
■ self-rated masculinity-femininity, occupational interests
■ childhood gender nonconformity
● retrospective and prospective studies
● androphilic natal males adopt feminine gender roles across cultures
Physiological:
■ neuroanatomical differences between gay vs straight men in INAH3
■ finger lengths, gay men had feminised ratios
Explain what perceived stigma is and how it may effect LGB’s.
(Ross, 1985)
Expectations of negative reactions to one’s stigmatised status (stigma consciousness).
■ leads to hyper-vigilance to threat and signs of rejection
■ linked to social anxiety and depression in LGB’s
■ more strongly predictive of psychological distress than objective instances of victimisation (Ross, 1985)
Explain what concealment of identity entails?
Constant self-monitoring to hide one’s status
Engenders fear of discovery
HOWEVER, outness not consistently linked to improved wellbeing - contingent on tolerance of one’s social environment
What evidence is there for an association between internalised homophobia and mental health?
(Newcomb & Mustanski, 2010)
Meta-analysis of 31 studies
■ investigated association between IH and psychological distress, depression & anxiety
Found:
■ modest positive association between IH and psychological distress and depression across studies
■ no gender differences in impact
■ overall support for minority stress hypothesis
Limitations:
● studies included are cross-sectional/correlational
● most undertaken in non-random samples
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add in Internalised Homophobia and HIV risk in MSM
(Ross et al., 2013)
ok, later.
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“Traits due to victimisation” or “persecution-produced traits” (Allport, 1958)
yeh
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National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions (Total N=34653; N=577 LGBs), a longitudinal, nationally representative study
Constitutional amendment banning gay marriage on the ballot 2004 - 2005 elections
(Hatzenbuehler et al., 2010)
no increases for heterosexuals living in states with constitutional amendments.
Do experiences of discrimination account for LGB mental health disparities?
(Burton, Marshal, Chrisholm, Sucato & Friedman, 2013)
FOUND significant correlates:
○ age - with increased age, decreased levels of proximal stressor,
○ therefore, could be developmental
What did an empirical challenge to notion that homosexuality a form of psychopathology find?
(Hooker, 1957)
Compared matched sample of 30 homosexual vs. 30 heterosexual males using a battery tests of psychological adjustment and psychopathology
FOUND: No difference between homosexual vs. heterosexual men
Led to a sharpened critique of psychodynamic models
How did the DSM I (1952) explain homosexuality?
It was explained as a sociopathic personality disturbance
How did the DSM II (1968) explain homosexuality?
It was explained as a sexual deviation
Is ‘outness’ linked to improved wellbeing?
No, it is contingent on tolerance of one’s social environment
