Lecture_8_Developmental Theories II_Erikson, Piaget, Kohlberg, and Gilligan

Question 1

Recognize a description of each of Erik Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development

Identify Jean Piaget’s stages and processes of cognitive development

Recognize central characteristics of Lawrence Kohlberg’s levels and stages of moral development

List contributions Carol Gilligan has made to the understanding of the psychological and moral development of women

Question 2

Recognize a description of each of Erik Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development:

Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages of Development_Stages:

• How many stages did Erikson identify?
• What are the stages of Erik Erikson’s model of development?
• What are the associated ages of each stage?

Answer 2

How many stages did Erikson identify?

• 8

What are the stages of Erik Erikson’s model of development? What are the associated ages of each stage?

• Trust vs. mistrust (birth-1 year of age)
• Autonomy vs. shame and doubt (1-3 years of age)
• Initiative vs. guilt (3-5 years of age)
• Industry vs. inferiority (5-11 years of age)
• Identity vs. role confusion (11-21 years of age)
• Intimacy vs. isolation (21-40 years of age)
• Generativity vs. stagnation (40-60 years of age)
• Integrity vs. despair (60 years of age-death)

Question 3

Recognize a description of each of Erik Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development:

Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages of Development_Trust vs. Mistrust:

• What age is associated with this stage of development?
• What are the issues presented at this stage?
• What questions are being “asked”/explored by the child?
• What are some potential issues that arrise in this stage?

Answer 3

What age is associated with this stage of development?

• birth- 1 year

What are the issues presented at this stage?

• issue of whether others are trustworthy to provide for one’s basic needs

What questions are being “asked”/explored by the child?

• is the world safe for exploration, play, and relaxation, or unpredictable and threatening?

What are some potential issues that arrise in this stage?

• infant who is not fed, or comforted, or kept warm learns that others are not to be trusted
• if others are seen as basically untrustworthy, then the individual will not follow advice, seek help, let down their guard, or be able to have emotionally intimate connections

If a child is tortured/left neglected in an environment without love/protection/support, the child learns that she/he shouldn’t trust anyone. They won’t have the ability to believe that you have their best interests at heart as their HCP. They’ll also hide any kind of weakness.

Question 4

Recognize a description of each of Erik Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development:

Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages of Development_Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt:

• What age is associated with this stage of development?
• What is the classical, age-related stage that is associated with this stage of development?
• What capacity does the child seem to develop at this stage? What does this signal?
• What are common phrases used by children in this stage?
• What question is the child “asking”/exploring during this stage?
• How can parents help children to succeed in this stage?

Answer 4

What age is associated with this stage of development?

• age 1-3 (aligned with Freud’s anal stage)

What is the classical, age-related stage that is associated with this stage of development?

• “terrible twos”

What capacity does the child seem to develop at this stage? What does this signal?

• the capacity to say “no” signals a developing sense of self, sense of free will, and awareness of ability to control the environment

What are common phrases used by children in this stage?

• Independence and self-assertion increase, “I do it!!!”

What question is the child “asking”/exploring during this stage?

• Can the infant gain a sense of being competent to solve problems and accomplish tasks?
• do I have a will? Can I say yes/no to things?
  • if so, then I have autonomy
  • if not, then I will always doubt myself

How can parents help children to succeed in this stage?

• ideally, parents structure the environment to foster mastery (e.g. child-size utensils and tools) and avoid excess control)

Question 5

Recognize a description of each of Erik Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development:

Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages of Development_Initiative vs. Guilt:

• What age is associated with this stage of development?
• What is the child learning during this stage?
• How is the child beginning to see itself?
• What is the child trying to do during this stage?
• What roles are present, and when?

Answer 5

What age is associated with this stage of development?

• age 3-5

What is the child learning during this stage?

• Learning to declare autonomy and individuality in ways that begin to conform to societal expectations
• Enjoy joining peers and adults in carrying out activities and making things

How is the child beginning to see itself?

• begins to see itself as a member of the community who can contribute to activities and goals and act towards a large purpose

What is the child trying to do during this stage?

• identification: trying to emulate a significant person in the child’s life, or be a part of a particular (ethnic, religious, national, etc.) group

What roles are present, and when?

• sex-role identity develops, particularly during pre-school years
• incorporation of sterotypes

Question 6

Recognize a description of each of Erik Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development:

Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages of Development_Industry vs. Inferiority:

• What age is associated with this stage of development?
• What is the challenge of this stage?
• What dramtically increases during this stage?
• What develops during this stage?
• What promotes this development during this stage?
• What issues can develop here?
• What can parents do during this stage to help kids be successful?

Answer 6

What age is associated with this stage of development?

• ​age 5-11 (aligned with latency stage of Freud)
  
  • period of “delightful obliviousness”

What is the challenge of this stage?

• challenge is to establish a sense of competence

What dramtically increases during this stage?

• marked increase in comparision of self to others

What develops during this stage?

• development of self esteem

What promotes this development during this stage?

• self esteem is promoted by parental acceptance and affection,
• setting enforcement of clear limits, and
• a respect for individuality and independence

What issues can develop here?

• If kids are unnaturally boosted in their self-esteem, two bad things can happen if they realize that they’re not as good as they were made to believe they are:
  
  • it can make them feel very nervous (called imposter fear)
  • it can make them feel like they’re being lied to by their parents/family
  • kids can learn to not attempt difficult tasks because they don’t want to lose the praise they are receiving that is boosting their self-esteem
• What can parents do during this stage to help kids be successful?
  
  • praise effort, not achievement
  • this helps kids associate the praise w/the effort, and help them see that effort is 100% under their control, rather than the accomplishment of something.

Question 7

Recognize a description of each of Erik Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development:

Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages of Development_Identity vs. Role Confusion:

• What age is associated with this stage of development?
• What other-named stage is occuring here?
• What question climaxes during this stage?
• What does this period of time require?
• What needs to develop here?
• How could one describe this time period?

Answer 7

• What age is associated with this stage of development?
  
  • age 11-21
• What other-named stage is occuring here?
  
  • adolescence
• What question climaxes during this stage?
  
  • “Who am I?”
• What does this period of time require?
  
  • a period of trying on a variety of roles and identities
  • requires both exploration and commitment to achieve successfully (need both)
• What needs to develop here?
  
  • need to develop a stable sense of self across various roles and settings
• How could one describe this time period?
  
  • ​a difficult period, with high baseline rates of emotional distress
  • most people would say middle school is the worst time of their life

Question 8

Recognize a description of each of Erik Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development:

Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages of Development_Intimacy vs. Isolation:

• What age is associated with this stage of development?
• What other-named stage is occuring here?
• What was the original need here?
• What is the more broad ability that needs to develop here?

Answer 8

• What age is associated with this stage of development?
  
  • age 21-40
• What other-named stage is occuring here?
  
  • young adulthood
• What was the original need here?
  
  • originally, the need to find and commit to a spouse
• What is the more broad ability that needs to develop here?
  
  • more broadly, the ability to develop deep, lasting, emotionally intimate relationships
    
    • this is important for emotional well being because you need people you can trust and rely on

Question 9

Recognize a description of each of Erik Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development:

Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages of Development_Generativity vs. Stagnation:

• What age is associated with this stage of development?
• What other-named stage is occuring here?
• What choice is being considered here by the person?
• What capacity is being considered here by the person?

Answer 9

• What age is associated with this stage of development?
  
  • age 40-60
• What other-named stage is occuring here?
  
  • middle adulthood
• What choice is being considered here by the person?
  
  • choice to raise the next generation
• What capacity is being considered here by the person?
  
  • capacity to contribute meaningfully in the world of work/community

Question 10

Recognize a description of each of Erik Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development:

Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages of Development_Integrity vs. Despair:

• What age is associated with this stage of development?
• What other-named stage is occuring here?
• What is the person mainly doing in this stage?

Answer 10

• What age is associated with this stage of development?
  
  • ​age 60-death
• What other-named stage is occuring here?
  
  • late adulthood
  • usually after retirement, but this is getting later these days
• What is the person mainly doing in this stage?
  • review of life with need to make sense of one’s own story and to find meaning in it (kids not @ home, most of life behind you)

Question 11

Identify Jean Piaget’s stages and processes of cognitive development:

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development_General Concepts:

• What is the basic unit of cognitive functioning to Piaget?
• What is meant by “Accommodation and Assimilation”?
• What is equilibration?
• What are the stages that make up Piaget’s theory? What are their associated ages?

Answer 11

• What is the basic unit of cognitive functioning to Piaget?
  
  • the schema
    
    • “a general framework that provides a model for understanding some aspect of the world”
• What is meant by “Accommodation and Assimilation”?
  
  • assimilation: assimilate new experiences into the existing schema
  • accommodation: need to change the schema in light of new information (need a new schema)
• What is equilibration?
  
  • back-and-forth process of experiencing the world and adjusting understanding is called equilibration
• What are the stages that make up Piaget’s theory? What are their associated ages?
  
  • Sensorimotor (birth to 2)
  • Preoperational (age 2-6)
  • Concrete Operational (age 6-12)
  • Formal Operational (age 12-19)

Question 12

Identify Jean Piaget’s stages and processes of cognitive development:

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development_Sensorimotor:

• What age range is associated with this stage?
• What is the child learning to do at this stage? Examples?

Answer 12

• What age range is associated with this stage?
  
  • birth to 2 years old
• What is the child learning to do at this stage? Examples?
  
  • ​infants learn to coordinate their sensory input with their motor output.
  • Ex.: baby learning how to pick up food

Question 13

Identify Jean Piaget’s stages and processes of cognitive development:

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development_Preoperational:

• What age range is associated with this stage?
• What newfound abilities does the child have at this stage? What big task/skill is mastered?
• What tends to be the focus/view of the world for the child at this stage?
• What tends to be difficult for children during this stage?

Answer 13

• What age range is associated with this stage?
  
  • ​age 2-6
• What newfound abilities does the child have at this stage? What big task/skill is mastered?
  
  • ability to mentally represent things in the world that are not currently present; object permanence is mastered (good sign developmentally when this becomes a skill the baby has). Research says that OP occurs sooner.
  • Ex. fantasy play originates here (knights in shining armor/imaginary friends)
• What tends to be the focus/view of the world for the child at this stage?
  
  • egocentrism
    
    • e.g. lightning struck my house because I was bad; anything bad in the world that happens is because of them
    • Piaget says that you have to develop out of this phase
    • its very important for a child to understand why a divorse during this age group is not their fault
• What tends to be difficult for children during this stage?
  • Difficulty distinguishing their own viewpoint from that of others (theory of mind); discounting of intent in determining morality
    
    • Don’t have the capacity to understand that other people have different things in their brains that is different than what’s in their head
    • punishment is the same whether you intend to do something or not
  • Confused about causation; confusion of appearance and reality

Question 14

Identify Jean Piaget’s stages and processes of cognitive development:

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development_Concrete Operational:

• What age range is associated with this stage?
• What newfound abilities does the child have at this stage?
• What needs to have been experienced directly by a child in this stage?

Answer 14

• What age range is associated with this stage?
  
  • age 6-12
• What newfound abilities does the child have at this stage?
  
  • ability to use logic to mentally manipulate objects and perform actions (e.g. addition and subtraction)
  • can consider more than one attribute of an object at a time (height & width)
  • development of conservation
  • declining egocentrism
  • play rule-based games; take intent into account and punish proportionately
• What needs to have been experienced directly by a child in this stage?
  
  • ​objects and events under consideration need to have been experienced directly

Question 15

Identify Jean Piaget’s stages and processes of cognitive development:

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development_Formal Operational:

• What age range is associated with this stage?
• What newfound abilities does the child have at this stage?
• How will a child solve problems during this stage? How will they reason?
• What are typically the child’s interests?
• What enhances this stage?
• How many Americans reach this stage by their early 20s? Is it always used?

Answer 15

• What age range is associated with this stage?
  
  • age 12-19
• What newfound abilities does the child have at this stage?
  
  • development of the capacity for abstract thought and formal-deductive reasoning
• How will a child solve problems during this stage? How will they reason?
  
  • will solve problems systematically and thoroughly
  • will reason based on abstract principles
• What are typically the child’s interests?
  
  • interest in abstract ideas and process of thinking itself
  • interested in univeral ethical principles (may be applied rigidly regardless of mitigating factors, i.e. idealistic)
• What enhances this stage?
  
  • specifically encouraged and enhanced by Western-style schools and emphasis on hypothesis testing
• How many Americans reach this stage by their early 20s? Is it always used?
  
  • as few as 30-40% of well-educated Americans reach this by their early 20s.
  • within an individual, this is not always used

Question 16

Recognize central characteristics of Lawrence Kohlberg’s levels and stages of moral development:

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Reasoning_Levels & Stages:

• How many levels and stages exist for Kohlberg in his levels of moral reasoning?
• What are their names and associated ages?
• What are some interesting statistics about Kohlberg’s morality? What does this imply?

Answer 16

• How many levels and stages exist for Kohlberg in his levels of moral reasoning?
  
  • 3 levels, each with 2 stages
• What are their names and associated ages?
  
  • Level I: Preconventional
    
    • Stage 1: Heteronomous morality; begins around the end of preschool (4-5)
    • Stage 2: Instrumental morality; begins around age 7-8
  • Level 2: Conventional
    
    • Stage 3: Good-child morality; begins around 10-11
    • Stage 4: Law-and-order mentality; begins betwen adolescence and early 20s
  • Level 3: Postconventional/Principled
    
    • Stage 5: Social-contract reasoning; early adulthood
    • Stage 6: Universal Principles; more of an ideal than a reality
• What are some interesting statistics about Kohlberg’s morality? What does this imply?
  • At age 20, approximately:
    
    • less than 1% are at stage 1
    • 15% are at stage 2
    • 55% are at stage 3 (con’t to decline into mid-30s)
    • 27% are at stage 4 (con’t to increase, 65% by age 36)
    • 2% are at stage 5 (still under 10% at age 36)
    • less than 1% are at stage 6
  • This implies that the age ranges are where you have the capacity to reach the different stages, but it takes some people a lot longer to reach certain levels of moral reasoning.

Question 17

Recognize central characteristics of Lawrence Kohlberg’s levels and stages of moral development:

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Reasoning_Level I_Preconventional:

• What are the stages present in this level? Associated ages?
• What are the characteristics of each stage?

Answer 17

• What are the stages present in this level? Associated ages? What are the characteristics of each stage?
  
  • Stage 1: Heteronomous morality
    
    • begins around the end of preschool
      
      • right is determined by adherence to external rules
      • the reason for doing something right is the avoidance of punishment
  • Stage 2: Instrumental morality
    
    • begins around age 7-8
      
      • right is determined by acting in one’s own interest and allowing others to do the same; interest in fairness
      • reason for doing right is to serve one’s own needs, includes awareness that others have separate needs
      • no longer dependent on external authority to determine right and wrong

Question 18

Recognize central characteristics of Lawrence Kohlberg’s levels and stages of moral development:

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Reasoning_Level II_Conventional:

• What are the stages present in this level? Associated ages?
• What are the characteristics of each stage?

Answer 18

• What are the stages present in this level? Associated ages? What are the characteristics of each stage?
  
  • Stage 3: Good-child morality
    
    • begins around age 10-11
      
      • right is determined by living up to expectations, having good motives, and being pro-social (rather than individualistic)
      • reason to do right is to be a good person and to care for others
  • Stage 4: Law-and-order mentality
    
    • begins between adolescence and early 20s
      
      • right is determined by following the law and helping the society or group as a whole
      • reasons to do right is to promote the rules of the social group as a whole (as opposed to relationships between individuals)

Question 19

Recognize central characteristics of Lawrence Kohlberg’s levels and stages of moral development:

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Reasoning_Level III_Post-Conventional:

• What are the stages present in this level? Associated ages?
• What are the characteristics of each stage?

Answer 19

• What are the stages present in this level? Associated ages? What are the characteristics of each stage?
  
  • Stage 5: Social-contract reasoning
    
    • early adulthood
      
      • right is determined by upholding universal values and rights; awareness that people hold a variety of values and beliefs
      • reason to do right is to abide by the social contract that promotes everyone’s welfare
  • Stage 6: Universal principles
    
    • more an ideal than a reality
      
      • right is determined by following ethical principles that were self-chosen (rather than societal) because they are universal principles of justice. Principles override law in the case of conflict
      • reason to do right is a belief in the validity of universal moral principles

Question 20

List contributions Carol Gilligan has made to the understanding of the psychological and moral development of women:

Contributions of Carol Gilligan to Understanding of Psychological/Moral Development of Women:

• What does Gilligan say to critique Kohlberg?
• What is a morality of care?
• What does Gilligan argue regarding women’s reasoning?
• What has subsequent research said about her statements?

Answer 20

• What does Gilligan say to critique Kohlberg?
  
  • Kholberg promotes a morality of justice emphasizing abstract principles of rights and fairness. His original participants were all boys/men.
• What is a morality of care?
  
  • a morality of care, with a focus on relationships and individual needs (rather than principles), can also be a key dimension of moral reasoning.
• What does Gilligan argue regarding women’s reasoning?
  
  • Gilligan argued that women tend to reason more out of a morality of care, and that girls are socialized to be nurturant, compassionate and non-judgemental, and are reluctant to judge right and wrong in absolute terms.
• What has subsequent research said about her statements?
  
  • ​Subsequent research has not upheld strong gender differences in moral reasoning.