lecture vocab Flashcards
1
Q
ecological restoration (ER)
A
the process of assisting the recovery of an ecosystem that has been degraded, damaged, or destroyed.
AKA: the *practice* of restoring ecosystems (pragmatic, site-specific, intentional)
2
Q
Curtis Prairie
A
“world’s oldest restored prairie,” by University of Wisconsin professors, including Aldo Leopold. ~1935.
3
Q
SER
A
Society for Ecological Restoration, formed in 1987 (NW chapter in 1992, UW chapter in 2008)
4
Q
ecosystem
A
biota + environment + interactions
5
Q
restoration ecology (RE)
A
the *science* that informs ER (based on ecological theory; a search for generalities, guidelines, rules)
6
Q
habitat
A
the dwelling place of an organism or community that provides the requisite conditions for its life processes.
7
Q
landscape
A
a mosaic consisting of two or more ecosystems that exchange organisms, energy, water, and nutrients.
8
Q
natural landscape/ecosystem
vs.
cultural landscape/ecosystem
A
natural: developed by natural processes; is self-organizing and self-maintaining
.
cultural: developed jointly by natural processes and human-imposed organization.
9
Q
sustainable cultural practices
A
traditional human land uses that maintain biodiversity and productivity
10
Q
degradation
A
subtle or gradual changes that reduce ecological integrity and health
11
Q
damage
A
acute and obvious changes in an ecosystem
12
Q
destroyed
A
when degradation or damage removes all macroscopic life, and commonly ruins the physical environment as well.
13
Q
transformation
A
the conversion of an ecosystem to a different kind of ecosystem or land use type.
14
Q
reference ecosystem, landscape, or landscape unit
A
the model for planning and evaluation of a restoration project.
If multiple ecosystems: reference landscape.
If portion of local landscape: reference landscape unit.
15
Q
ecological trajectory
A
the developmental pathway of an ecosystem through time
16
Q
species composition vs. richness
A
composition: taxonomic array of species present; list of species w/ their relative abundance
.
richness: # of different species present; an integer
17
Q
species redundancy
A
presence of multiple species performing similar roles in ecosystem dynamics, providing assurance that ecosystem health is maintained in response to stress, disturbance or other environmental changes.
18
Q
community structure
A
the physiognomy/architecture of the community w/ respect to the density, horizontal stratification, & frequency distribution of species-populations, and the sizes and life forms of the organisms that comprise those communities.
19
Q
ecological processes / ecosystem functions
A
dynamic attributes of ecosystems, including interactions among organisms and interactions between organisms and their environment. Functions are sometime explicitly those that affect ecosystem metabolism (nutrient cycling, decomp, etc).
20
Q
resistance / resilience defined
A
resistance: ability to maintain structural/functional attributes in the face of stress and disturbance
.
resilience: ability to regain structural/functional attributes that have suffered harm from stress or disturbance
21
Q
autogenic
A
self-renewing; caused by ecosystem functions/processes and reproduction/growth of organisms
22
Q
ecosystem stability
A
ability to maintain trajectory in spite of stress
23
Q
ecosystem integrity
A
the state/condition of an ecosystem that displays the biodiversity characteristic of the reference, such as species composition & community structure, and is fully capable of sustaining normal ecosystem functioning.
24
Q
ecosystem health
A
the state/condition of an ecosystem in which its dynamic attributes are expressed within “normal” ranges of activity relative to its ecological stage of development.
25
performance standards
aka design criteria or success criteria, based on reference site.
26
rehabilitation
reparation of ecosystem processes, productivity and services, but not necessarily w/ re-establishment of historical biotic integrity (which would be restoration)
27
reclamation
typically on mined lands in North America & UK, includes stabilization of terrain, public safety, aesthetic improvement; return of the land to a useful purpose.
28
mitigation
action intended to compensate for environmental damage.
29
creation/fabrication
mitigation on terrain devoid of vegetation; installation of a different kind of ecosystem from that which occurred historically
30
ecological engineering
manipulation of natural materials, living organisms and the physical-chemical environment to achieve specific human goals and solve technical problems
31
ecosystem services, and the 4 categories of them...
benefits people obtain from an ecosystem;
PRCS
* Provisioning: goods
* Regulating: processes
* Cultural: non-material benefits
* Supporting: necessary for all other services
32
societal stability
linked to ecosystem services; can collapse if services are broken; ex: dust bowl, Easter island
33
anthropocene
era of human impact
34
examples of human caused changes (4)
* climate change
* accelerated species extinctions
* non-native species
* altered nitrogen cycle (& other nutrients)
35
intrinsic value
something has intrinsic value when it has value in and of itself, not for some outside purpose or for its utility to us;
implies moral obligation to conserve/restore ecosystems for their own sake
36
mitigation sequence (3)
1. avoid
2. minimize
3. compensate
37
methods of compensatory mitigation (4)
REEP
1. restoration: re-establishment/rehab
2. establishment (\*creation\*): where it didn't exist before
3. enhancement: make existing wetland more productive
4. preservation: permanent protection
38
Clean Water Act, Section 404 (1948/72)
* deals w/ regulation of wetlands
* permits needed to discharge dredged or fill material into water, carry out water resource projects (dams, levees, etc), mining
* how much mitigation needed determined by ACoE, via ratios/categories (IV \< II)
39
mitigation bank
wetland created to account for damages that will occur elsewhere in the \*same watershed\*
40
Endangered Species Act (1973)
* "to protect and recover imperiled species and the ecosystems upon which they depend"
* "species" defined to include subspecies, varieties, and distinct population segments
41
ESA categories (3)
1. endangered: in danger of extinction
2. threatened: in danger of becoming endangered
3. candidate: should be listed, but FWS lacks resources to do so
42
ESA criteria for listing (5)
DODIO
1. damage/destruction of habitat
2. overutilization
3. disease or predation
4. inadequacy of existing protection
5. other natural/manmade factors
43
ESA delisting reasons (3)
1. species goes extinct
2. obtain new info (eg, more common than previously thought)
3. species recovers (ex: bald eagle, american alligator)
44
ESA take
kill, harm, harrass, or otherwise impact negatively
45
ESA recovery plans... (3)
1. describe the steps needed to restore a species to ecological health
2. designate critical habitat for the species
3. use landowner incentives like conservation banks
46
Collaborative Forest Landscape Restoration Program (CFLR)
2009
encourages collaborative, science-based ecosystem restoration of priority forest landscapes
47
National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA)
1969
* evaluation of environmental effects of proposed actions by federal agencies
* Environmental Assessments (EAs)
* Environmental Impact Statements (EISs)
* Draft documents available for public input
48
Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act
1977
* regulates environmental effects of coal mining
* includes regulatory and reclamation programs
* goal: just get \*something\* to grow, doesn't matter what
49
Gulf of Mexico Regional Ecosystem Restoration Strategy
2011
* restore & conserve habitat
* restore water quality
* replenish & protect living coastal & marine resources
* enhance community resilience
50
reference conditions are a...
used as a...
consider ___ and ___ scales
set of conditions, or an example site that is less degraded than the restoration site
used as a model on which to base restoration efforts
spacial, temporal
51
reference conditions are used to... ? (3, ddd)
define, determine, develop
1. determine restoration potential of sites, and factors causing degredation
2. define restoration goals / what needs to be accomplished
3. develop criteria for evaluating success
52
example reference resources (4, EHHP)
1. extant physical site
2. herbarium records
3. historical documents, maps, early photographs, survey records
4. pollen records (iffy at best)
53
questions/data to ask/get at a reference site (7)
1. what species present
2. which species dominant, & why
3. tree spacing
4. which species occupy which microhabitats, which soils?
5. what is the age or stature of the trees?
6. evidence of processes / disturbances
7. dead wood, litter/organic material on soil surface?
54
Benchmarks are...
criteria to be achieved during restoration, including:
Threshold Levels and
Performance Standards
55
The Restoration 4-Step
ADIM:
1. Assess
2. Design
3. Implement
4. Monitor
56
Logistical/Staging topics (5)
EqSuPeSiPu
1. Equipment (long-term use items like wheelbarrows)
2. Supplies (short-term/one-time use items like gloves)
3. Personnel / training
4. Signage
5. Publicity
1. recruitment
2. PR (fire, weeds, noise)
57
typical pac-nw implementation actions
1. plant material acquisition
2. site preparation
3. installation
4. post-planting treatments
58
Plant materials acquisition from... (3)
1. retail/wholesale
2. salvage
3. collect seeds, grow yourself
59
restoration design includes plant choices like... (4)
1. species
2. stocktype
3. plant size
4. spacing (determines qty)
60
restoration site preparation might involve... (3)
1. contouring
2. soil amedments
3. invasive removal
and is much easier before desired plants are installed
61
restoration installation concerns... (3)
1. timing is critical, with distinct windows when actions are appropriate
2. windows vary with climate, ecosystem
1. planting
2. herbicide application
3. seeding
4. fire
3. other:
1. no in-stream work during salmon spawning season
2. vegetative cover req'd by Oct 1
3. no fire because agency won't grant permit
62
control sites
degraded sites that have not been restored
63
9 attributes of restored ecosystems
1. contains a characteristic assemblage of the species that occur in the reference ecosystem and that provide appropriate community structure
2. consists of indigenous species to the greatest possible extent
3. All funcitonal groups necessary for the continued development and/or stability of the restored ecosystem are represented, or missing groups have potential to colonize by natural means.
4. is capable of sustaining reproducing populations of the species necessary for its continued stability or development along the desired trajectory.
5. apparently functions normally for its ecological stage of development, and signs of disfunction are absent
6. is suitably integrated into a larger ecological matrix or landscape
7. potential threats to health/integrity from surrounding landscape have been eliminated or reduced
8. is sufficiently resilient to endure normal periodic stress events in the local environment
9. is self-sustaining to same degree as its reference ecosystem, and has the potential to persist indefinitely under existing environmental conditions
64
watershed
area of land where all the water drains to the same place
65
"design" is...
generating plans to make something that doesn't already exist
- sometimes result in Process Models
66
Restoration Design is... (5)
1. Purposeful: articulate a broad & accessible overall goal (purpose)
2. Constrained (Cs): owned by stakeholders (nature, prob. owner, neighbors, townies, legal)
3. Based in Theory: outcomes are predicted by theory
4. Hierarchical: big picture comes before details
5. Finite
67
Functional Requirements (FRs)
specific requirements for functionality or structural configuration (owned by Problem Owner)
* ex: _provide_ winter habitat for X
68
Design Parameters (DPs)
the physical things you can directly specify; design choices
can spawn new FR and/or make new Cs irrelevant
ex: mulch specification
69
A process model...
allows an activity to become a manageable project
70
reference sites
sites that have \*not\* been degraded
71
Constraints (Cs)
desires of Stakeholders (nature, problem owner, neighbors, townies, legal...)
72
Linear Succession Model
deterministic; bi-directional transitions
73
Marine Derived Nutrients
make tiny salmon wicked huge, which they then bring back upstream, die, and thus fertilize the forest ecosystem
74
State-and-Transition model
probabilistic; non-linear, transitions possible in multiple directions
75
WSDOT key project terms (8)
1. Compensatory Mitigation: the regulatory framework
2. Sustainable Right-of-Ways: roadside restoration policy
3. Chronic Environmental Deficiencies (CEDs): intersections of highways and environmental systems
4. Fish Passage Repair Program: culvert retrofits
5. Bridge repair/improvement: seismic retrofit & scout repair
6. Mitigation banking
7. Urban roadsides: ornamental
8. Biostabilization
76
Common maintenance tasks (8)
1. install anti-herbivory features
2. reapplication of mulch
3. repair irrigation lines
4. erosion control
5. invasive species control
1. invasive species vs. ruderal weeds
6. interpretive signage
7. secondary plantings (phased design)
8. additional seeding
77
Why monitor? (6)
```
# 1. evaluate success/failures
* suggest appropriate timeframes for determining success
```
* define factors that are best indicators for success
2. look for general patterns
3. make comparisons to other sites/goals
4. develop protocols to use elsewhere
5. maximize efficiency
6. it's how restoration ecologists learn what works
\* otherwise, every site is a case study
78
Maintenance vs. Monitoring
Maintenance is important for ensuring a site develops as intended
Monitoring is essential for advancing the science of restoration
Both often challenging to fund and carry out
79
Goals & Models
* Goals are essential:
* *A priori*
* informed by multiple perspectives
* not always historical
* Models
* reflect how we think the world works
* particularly important for long-term goals
80
Essential elements of restoration (2 w/ 2 each)
* Ecosystems
* improve biodiversity conservation
* improve ecosystem productivity
* Human Systems
* improve human livelihoods
* empower local people
81
Attributes of restoration progress (4)
| (w/ respect to human systems)
BJEN
* **Balance**: human activities reinforce ecological health, and vice versa
* **Justice**: ppl dependent on ecosystem have key role in setting priorities and implementation
* **Economics**: costs and benefits are equitably distributed
* **Natural capital**: accumulation of resources for future use
82
Principles of restoration practice (7)
| (w/ respect to human systems)
1. Informed stakeholders
2. Empowered stakeholders
3. Engaged stakeholders
4. Involved stakeholders
5. Use full range of knowledge
6. Short-term benefits, longer-term objectives
7. Accrual of ecosystem goods and services
83
(1/9): a restored ecosystem contains a ______ \_\_\_\_\_\_ of the \_\_\_\_\_ that occur in the _____ \_\_\_\_\_\_ and that provide appropriate _____ \_\_\_\_\_
* characteristic assemblage
* species
* reference ecosystem
* community structure
84
(2/9): a restored ecosystem consists of ____ \_\_\_\_\_ to the greatest possible extent
* indigenous species
*
85
(3/9): a restored ecosystem contains all ___ \_\_\_ necessary for the continued \_\_\_\_\_\_ and/or ______ of the restored ecosystem, or missing groups have potential to ______ by natural means.
* functional groups
* development
* stability
* colonize
86
(4/9): a restored ecosystem is capable of sustaining ________ \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ of the species necessary for its continued _____ or _____ along the desired \_\_\_\_\_.
* reproducing populations
* stability
* development
* trajectory
87
(5/9): a restored ecosystem apparently _____ \_\_\_\_\_ for its ecological _____ of \_\_\_\_\_, and signs of _____ are \_\_\_\_\_
* functions normally
* stage
* development
* disfunction
* absent
88
(6/9): a restored ecosystem is suitably _____ into a larger _____ \_\_\_\_\_ or \_\_\_\_\_
* integrated
* ecological matrix
* landscape
89
(7/9): a restored ecosystem has had all potential _____ to its _____ \_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_ from the surrounding landscape \_\_\_\_\_ or \_\_\_\_\_\_
* threats
* health and integrity
* eliminated
* reduced
90
(8/9): a restored ecosystem is sufficiently \_\_\_\_ to endure normal periodic _____ \_\_\_\_\_ in the local environment
* resilient
* stress events
91
(9/9): a restored ecosystem is _____ to same degree as its ______ ecosystem, and has the potential to _____ \_\_\_\_\_ under existing environmental conditions
* self-sustaining
* reference
* persist indefinitely
92
keystone species
a species that has a disproportionate effect on its environment relative to its biomass; includes **ecosystem engineers **and **predators**
93
ecosystem engineers
keystone species that structure their environment (ex: beavers)
94
two top-level ways in which predators impact prey
* directly, by eating it
* indirectly, by changing behavior
* the ecology of fear
95
indirect predator effects occur when...
... **predators** cause a change in some property of a **transmitter** species, which in turn has an effect on a 3rd species within the community, the **receiver**
96
two types of landscape-level, indirect predator effects
1. density-mediated: predator causes a change in the **density** of a transmitter species, which in turn has an effect on the receiver (wolf -\> elk -\> aspen)
2. trait-mediated: predators cause a change in a
**trait** of the transmitter species, which in turn
has an effect on the receiver
(sharks -\> dugong -\> seagrass))
97
trophic cascades occur when...
... predators reduce the abundance of their prey, releasing the next lower trophic level from predation
(density-mediated indirect effect)
98
autecology
the ecology of an individual species;
the study of the interactions of an organism or species with the living and non-living factors of its environment
99
weeds
plants that generally grow in disturbed areas where they are unwanted and unappreciated
100
some weedy traits (7)
1. more likely annual, biennial
2. more likely toxic
3. perennial weeds more likely shade-intolerant
4. monoecious
5. annual exotics more likely armed
6. exotics less likely forbs, more likely trees
7. likely to be mycorrhizal host
101
some growth and survival traits (11)
1. life form
2. life span
3. biomass allocation
4. ability to withstand env. conditions
* drought, heat/cold, flooding / grazing, predation...
5. toxicity
6. morhpology (defense)
7. rooting depth
8. photosynthetic pathway
9. nitrogen fixation
10. mycorrhizal host
11. phenology
102
Final Q: which plant traits would you want when restoring a:
1. new wetland migration site on I5
2. upland well-drained prairie in western WA
3. shrub-steppe area in eastern WA
4. nutrient poor clearcut on the Olympic peninsula
...
103
monoecious
plant that has both male and female reproductive parts
104
dioeceious
plant that does *not* have male and female reproductive parts on the same plants
105
some pollination methods (-phily) (5)
1. wind
2. water
3. insects
4. birds
5. bats
106
seed dispersal methods (-chory) (5)
1. anemochory: by wind
2. hydrochory: by water
3. zoochory (internal or external): by animals
4. gravity
5. ballistic (self-propelled)
107
differences in reproduction timing (3)
* frequency: regular vs. once at end-of-life
* age @ flowering
* interval between flowerings
* consistent or irregular
108
biodiversity is...
1. variation in life
2. the variability among living organisms on the earth, including the variability within and between species and within and between ecosystems
109
3 sides of biodiversity pyramid
1. **structure**: tree density, spatial patchiness
* fairly easy to measure, slow to change
2. **composition**: # and type of species
* kinda easy to measure, slow to change
3. **function**: a process, like CO2 flux, nutrient cycling, disturbances, disease
* very difficult to measure
* dynamic: fluxtuate spacially and temporally
\*\*\*all three are interdependent, but function is in some ways foundational to the other two
110
structural vs. compositional vs. functional approaches to solving a "too dense" dry forest
* structural: thinning Rx, how many, what size
* compositional: which species to cut or save
* functional: introduce fire regime
111
function usually _____ with diversity in the form of a ______ \_\_\_\_\_\_\_;
having more ______ provides a buffer against \_\_\_\_\_\_
increases, saturating curve
diversity, variability
112
a disturbance is a...
relatively discrete event in time that distrupts ecosystem, community, or population structure and changes teh resource, substrate availability, or physical environment.
113
3 broad themes of disturbances
1. Initial conditions
* ecological legacies
* historical contingency
2. Ongoing dynamics
* frequency
* patch size
* specificity
* pattern & process
3. Productivity
* resource availability
114
disturbance: ecological legacy
| (initial conditions)
the living organisms, dead organic matter, and physical structures that remain **after** a disturbance
115
disturbance: historical contingency
| (initial conditions)
the theory that the paths that life can evolve on are constrained by historical events that are often random;
applied: is a disturbance w/in the range of variation of historical disturbances
116
disturbance: frequency
| (ongoing dynamics)
how often the disturbance occurs;
depending on the ecosystem, increases or decreases in frequency can cause problems
117
disturbance: patch size
| (ongoing dynamics)
the size of the disturbance directly effects the ecosystem's ability to recover;
heterogeneity of disturbance effects increases species diversity
118
disturbance: specificity
| (ongoing dynamics)
who is affected?
* species
* age
* size
* health
119
disturbance: pattern & process
| (ongoing dynamics)
pattern: structure / how landscape looks
process: how disturbances happen (ex: fire regime)
120
disturbance: resource availability
| (productivity)
more productive sites have more resources, but more resources are not *always *better
(ex: more nitrogen content can boost weed growth more than native growth)
121
stable vs. resistant vs. resilient
1. **stable**: able to return to starting value
2. **resistant**: changed little, recovers slowly
3. **resilient**: easily changed, but recovers rapidly
122
3 views of ecosystem dynamics
1. **classical succession**
* steady, directional change to a single endpoint; goal = climax community
* deterministic, high predictability
2. **state & transition**
* probabilistic
* little change until a threshold is crossed
* multiple equilibriums are possible
3. **persistant non-equilibrium**
* successional agnosticism; assumes external factors are more important than in other views: stochasticity (random events) / past history (legacies)
* succession is unpredictable with no tendency towards a permanent state
123
"appropriate" disturbances depend on the ___________ in question and your ________ goals
ecosystem, restoration
124
2 key factors of **assembly rules**
1. filters
2. initial conditions / priority effects
125
3 types of assembly filters
1. dispersal: can the sp. reach the restored site?
* method
* distance
* barriers
2. environment: can the sp. survive there?
* tolerances for shade, nutrients, moisture
* biotic interactions (competition)
3. disturbance: is the sp. able to persist?
* reactions differ depending on type, freq., and duration
126
cascade of assembly filters means species will only occur if they can...
reach a site, then survive & reproduce under its environmental conditions and disturbance regime
127
assembly filters: restoration often... (3)
1. overcomes dispersal limitation
2. alters environmental conditions
3. imposes select disturbances
128
assembly: priority effects: dominance generally by species that... (2)
1. are already present at the site
* extant vegetation
2. arrive first
* from seed bank
* seed dispersal
\* also a role for stochastic events (chance colonization)
129
to set initial conditions, restoration can control ____ by... (2)
which means you do not need to ______ the entire ____ at once, but can utilize... (3)
restoration can control priority
* remove undesired species before planting
* add species that would not colonize naturally or quickly
which means you do not need to assemble entire community at once:
* interseeding
* coordinate species introductions w/ stages in ecological development
* expect some species to "phase out" over time
130
competition/colonization trade-off (2)
* good colonists = weaker competitors
* results in:
* coexistence
* successional changes
131
"assembly rules set _____ \_\_\_\_\_; succession is what happens after that"
initial conditions
132
three terms used to describe aspects of both art and restoration
* composition
* structure
* pattern
133
economics: who should pay?
* responsible party?
* restoration req'd by law?
* responsibility assigned before damage?
* bonds / legislation
* responsibility assigned after damage?
* fines / legislation
* restoration voluntary
* private funding: economic reasons or stewardship
* public/private partnerships
* no responsible party?
* general taxes, rerouting subsidies
* public/private partnerships
* taxation of specific products or processes
* public/private partnerships
* voluntary contributions of labor or money
* public/private partnerships
134
types of economic valuation (6)
1. replacement cost: cost of retoring ecosystem
2. replacement cost + multiplier: same + funding for lost values during damage and uncertainty
3. valuing ecosystem goods/services
4. contingent valuation
* survey ppl's willingness to pay for a restored area
5. travel cost method
* estimate value based on ppl's willingness to spend time/money travelling there
6. hedonic price method
* effect of restored area on nearby property values
135
plant hardiness zone
a geographically defined area in which a specific category of plant life is capable of growing, as defined by climatic conditions, including its ability to withstand the minimum temperatures of the zone
\*\*\* western WA state is mostly zone 8 (seattle: 8b), eastern is zone 6-7
136
bioclimatic envelopes
Determine climate in current range, and figure out where those combinations are predicted in future;
usefulness is questionable, as many species rely on interactions with other organisms far more than climate *per se*.
137
phenological mismatches
* different organisms have different 'cues' for timing (temp, precip, light, etc)
* changing phenology (due to changing climate) can alter interspecific interactions
138
assisted migration
helping organisms colonize new habitats
| (aka: modifying the dispersal filter)
139
Light's criteria of good restorations (3)
A good restoration will...
1. Be **ecologically effective**: goals met
2. Be **economically efficient**: benefits \> costs
3. Accrue **societal benefits** through public participation
"A good restoration must maximize the degree of public participation."
140
Ecological Citizenship
* universally inclusive ("everyone")
* expands civic duties to include long-term sustainability of nature
* participation in restoration
* engagement w/ _nature_ and _neighbors_
* "doing something together" in public spaces
141
Ecological Identity
* defined subjectively; self-selecting
* a form of identity politics
* tends to be:
* special interests
* exlusive / cliqueish
* fosters an "us versus them" mentality
142
Top 3 reasons people participate in restorations
1. emotional well-being
2. socializing
3. community
143
The Land Ethic
"Quit thinking about decent land-use as solely an economic problem. Examine each question in terms of what is ethically and esthetically right, as well as what is economically expedient. **A thing is right when it tends to preserve the integrity, stability, and beauty of the biotic community. It is wrong when it tends otherwise.**"
144
primary goals of
Restoration Aquaculture
of Puget Sound Restoration Fund (3)
1. Recover species & habitats that are imperiled or diminished
2. Improve water quality (through natural filtrations & engagement)
3. Reforge our connection to healthy marine resources
Specific Projects
* Community Shellfish Farms
* Shellfish Gardening
* Native Oyster Resoration
* Pinto Abalone Recovery
* Kelp Restoration and Cultivation
* Mussel cultivation to mitigate nutrient pollution
* Ocean acidification research/remediation
145
Dry Forests: Principles of Stand Level Restoration &
Fuel Reduction Treatments (5)
1. Retain and Release large & old trees
2. Shift composition to fire & drought tolerant species
3. Thin primarily from below: reduce ladder fuels
4. Reduce surface fuels & promote understory:
* precribed fire
5. Restore a mosaic spatial pattern
