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Mitigating Climate Change > Lecture material: definitions & basic descriptions > Flashcards

Lecture material: definitions & basic descriptions Flashcards

1
Q

Why is climate change mitigation so challenging?

A
  • Uncertain in form and extent
  • Gradual and insidious onset rather than directly confrontational
  • Long term threat rather than immediate, but it requires action now
  • Broad in impacts and remedies
  • Effective remedies are beyond the scope of anyone nation; it requires international co-operation of unprecedented dimension and
    complexity
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2
Q

Outline 4 types of measuring mitigation benefits

A
  • Type 1: Currently measureable market impacts
  • Type 2: Market impacts not readily measurable
  • Type 3: Insurance value against high damages (WTP)
  • Type 4: Non-market impacts
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3
Q

What is the cumulative carbon budget from 2011-2100 to have a 66% chance of staying below 2oC?

And the remaining budget for energy related emissions?

A

1,000 Gt CO2

600 Gt CO2

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4
Q

Outline the carbon budget approach to climate justice

A

Underlying principle: Equal emissions entitlement

Proportion of global carbon budget allocated on basis of population

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5
Q

Outline the Index-based approach to climate justice

A

Underlying principle: Historical responsibility

Share of mitigation determined by share of historical emissions

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6
Q

Outline the Contraction and convergence approach to climate justice

A

Underlying principle: Equal emissions entitlement

Country emissions follow a pathway where they contract to converge on the same emissions per capita by a specified date

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7
Q

Outline the Common but differentiated convergence approach to climate justice

A

Underlying principle: Equal emissions and historical responsibility

As above but countries further differentiated on their level of economic development. Countries below per capita threshold can carry on with BaU.

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8
Q

Outline the Cost proportional to GDP per capita approach to climate justice

A

Underlying principle: capacity to pay

Targets set based on equal mitigation costs
as a percentage of GDP

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9
Q

Outline the Income classification approach approach to climate justice

A

Underlying principle: capacity to pay

Targets set based on mitigation costs as a percentage of GDP but higher % for wealthier countries

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10
Q

Outline the responsibilities of Annex 1 countries in the UNFCCC

A

Annex 1: developed countries

  • meant to take the lead
  • Specific mitigation targets and timelines for developed countries
  • Developed countries expected to provide funding and resources (technology transfer) to developing countries
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11
Q

What is grid parity?

A

the same cost as grid power per unit of energy

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12
Q

Advantages & disadvantages of solar PV

A

Solar PV: converts photonics energy from sunlight directly into electrical energy.

Advantages:

  • Low ghg emissions per unit of electrical energy produced.
  • Able to operate economically at a range of scales
  • CPU electricity falling rapidly, reaching grid parity in many regions
  • Low operating and maintenance costs, no moving parts, silent and no direct emissions.

Disadvantages:

  • Intermittent
  • Requires an inverter to convert from DC to AC to transmit to the grid
  • Upfront capital cost remains high relative to conventional generation
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13
Q

Advantages & disadvantages of CSP

A

CSP uses lenses or mirrors to concentrate a large area of sunlight onto a small area. This light is converted into heat which drives a heat engine to generate electricity.

Advantages:

  • Low gig emissions per unit of electrical energy produced.
  • Time of electricity output may be controlled by storage of heat in molten salt.
  • No direct emissions.

Disadvantages:

  • Only economical at a large sale and in regions of high direct sunlight, must be close to an urban centre.
  • Relatively expensive.
  • Often large projects with long construction times and high upfront capital costs.
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14
Q

Outline solar thermal panels

A

Solar thermal panels: convert photonic energy from sunlight directly into heat to provide hot water.

Has been cost effective in many regions for over 30 years.

The IEA project cost decline of 43% in Europe from 2010 to 2020.

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15
Q

Advantages/ disadvantages of wind power

A

Wind turbines convert the wind’s kinetic energy into electrical power.

Advantages:

  • Low ghg emissions per unit of electrical energy produced.
  • CPU electricity is competitive with fossil fuels in many regions.
  • Can be built on farms without causing long term disruption to agriculture.
  • No direct emissions associated with operation.

Disadvantages:

  • Intermittent.
  • Upfront capital cost remains high relative to conventional generation.
  • Strong local opposition to appearance and noise in some areas.
  • Good wind sites are often located in remote locations, requiring potentially costly transmission to cities where the electricity is needed.
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16
Q

Advantages/ disadvantages of hydropower

A

Hydropower is the most globally deployed renewable electricity source, and generated 17% of world electricity, and 70% of renewable electricity in 2015.

Advantages

  • Low ghgs emissions per unit of electrical energy produced.
  • Electricity output may be controlled by release of dam.
  • CPU electricity is below that of fossil fuels in many regions.
  • No direct emissions associated with operation.

Disadvantages:

  • Often large projects with long construction times and high upfront capital costs.
  • Site specific, requiring potentially costly transmission to cities.
  • Possible loss of habitat due to barrier waterlife and flooding for dams.
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17
Q

Relative merits of wind, nuclear & gas

A

Wind power:

  • High capex
  • low operating costs, no fuel costs
  • output variable
  • low GHG emissions

Nuclear power:

  • High capex
  • high operating costs, low fuel costs
  • output constant
  • low GHG emissions

Gas turbine:

  • Intermediate capex
  • high fuel costs
  • output may be rapidly ramped up or down
  • intermediate GHG emissions
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18
Q

5 metrics for comparing energy generation technologies

A
  • Typical output
  • Reliability of supply
  • Cost
  • Emissions intensity
  • Land use
19
Q

Electricity generation technologies do not generate at full capacity all of the time. This may be due to:

A
  • Planned or unplanned maintenance.
  • Intentional ramping up and down of supply to meet demand/ respond to economics of generating at current electricity price.
  • Unavailability of fuel (including wind, sunlight, and water for renewables).
20
Q

Outline system balancing

A

System balancing relates to the relatively rapid short term adjustments needed to manage fluctuations over the time period from minutes to hours.

21
Q

Outline reliability impacts

A

Reliability impacts relates to the extent to which we can be confident that sufficient generation will be available to meet peak demands.

22
Q

Outline the three categories of frequency response reserves

A

Enhanced Frequency Response:
which must provide power (or reduce demand) within one second and provide power for a further nine seconds.

Primary Frequency Response:
which must provide power (or reduce demand) within ten seconds, and provide power for a further 20 seconds.

Secondary Response:
which must provide power (or reduce demand) within 30 seconds, and provide power for a further 30 minutes.

23
Q

Outline Loss of Load Probability

A

LOLP measures the statistical likelihood that any load (demand) is not met, and it is usually a requirement of electricity systems that LOLP is kept small.

Variable generation increases LOLP for same total generating capacity.

24
Q

Outline the relation between capacity credit and LOLP

A

Capacity credit represents the amount of capacity reserve required per capacity credit to keep LOLP the same as using purely thermal plants.

25
Q

4 methods of ensuring consistent electricity supply?

A
  • Energy storage
  • Increased connectivity
  • Demand side management
  • Dispatchable generation
26
Q

Advantages/ disadvantages of Lead-acid battery

A

Lead- acid batteries consist of lead dioxide (cathode), metal lead (anode) and aqueous sulphuric acid (electrolyte).

Advantages:

  • Mature technology
  • Lowest cost battery technology
  • Effective recycling procedures exist, >99% recycled in EU & US
  • Able to respond quickly to changes in demand
  • Economical at a range of scales

Disadvantages:

  • Relatively low energy density: unsuitable for EVs
  • Relatively low cycle life and very dependent on depth-of-charge.
  • Lead is toxic and acid is highly corrosive.
  • Over their lifetime, lead-acid batteries are estimated to only store twice the energy used in their manufacture, not effective for climate change mitigation.
  • Requires inverter to convert back to AC and interact with the grid
27
Q

Advantages/ disadvantages of Lithium-ion batteries

A

Advantages:

  • Rapidly falling costs and technology improvements
  • Relatively high life cycle (5000+ reported)
  • Relatively high energy and power density
  • High efficiency
  • Able to respond quickly to changes in demand and provide enhanced frequency response.
  • Economical at a range of scales (on and off grid).
  • Over their lifetime, lithium-ion batteries are estimated to store ten times the energy used in their manufacture.

Disadvantages:

  • Relatively high capital cost compared to lead-acid
  • Contain potentially toxic materials and recycling procedures are not well established.
  • Most designs contain cobalt and nickel, which are challenging to source ethically.
  • Relatively high embedded energy compared to mechanical technologies.
  • Requires inverter to convert back to ac.
28
Q

Advantages/ disadvantages of Redox Flow Batteries

A

Advantages:

  • Potential to operate at a range of scales (on and off grid)
  • Power and energy decoupled, allowing versatility of design
  • High life cycle (10,000+ reported)
  • Vanadium electrolyte doesn’t degrade and can be recycled.

Disadvantages:

  • Relatively high capital cost compared to competing technologies.
  • Energy and power density too low for electric vehicles.
  • Relatively little deployed compared to other technologies.
  • Vanadium exhibits modest toxicity to humans.
  • Requires inverter to convert back to ac.
29
Q

Advantages/ disadvantages of high temperature sodium based batteries

A

Advantages

  • Relatively high energy leading to small spatial footprint
  • Abundant, non-toxic materials promise low material costs and good recyclability.
  • Battery operation is independent from ambient temperatures and allows deep depth-of-discharge at relatively high cycle life.

Disadvantages

  • When not in use the batteries require 10-14% own capacity per day to maintain their operating temperature and must be preheated after shutdown.
  • Power density too low for EVs
  • Sodium and sulphur can cause a violent reaction when the separating ceramic ruptures.
  • Expertise not widespread
  • Challenges surrounding corrosion of materials under harsh operating conditions, and dendritic sodium growth.
  • Requires inverter to convert back to ac.
30
Q

Advantages of power-to-gas storage

A

PtG plants convert electricity into hydrogen or synthetic methane. This gas is stored and can be re-electrified, used in transport, heat generation or in industrial applications as feedstock.

Advantages

  • PtG plants can make renewable power available for other energy sectors (transport, heat) and the chemical industry.
  • Large amounts of energy can be stored while utilising existing gas network infrastructure, which could make this technology particularly attractive for seasonal storage.

Disadvantages

  • High electrolyser cost represents the most important barrier to PtG deployment.
  • Relatively low efficiencies.
  • Relatively slow response to changes in power supply
31
Q

Advantages/ disadvantages of pumped hydroelectric storage

A

PHS involves the pumping of water from a lower reservoir to a higher reservoir at times of peak supply to be released through a turbine to generate electrical energy at time of peak demand.

Advantages

  • Proven technology
  • Long lifetime (40+ years)
  • Relatively low carbon footprint (store over 200 times the energy required for their construction)
  • Rely on robust mechanical components and no scarce materials.

Disadvantages

  • Site specific
  • Long construction time
  • High capital cost
  • Potential for impact on aquatic life
32
Q

Advantages/ disadvantages of Compressed Air Energy Storage

A

CAES involves the compression of air at times of peak supply, which is typically stored in an underground salt cavern, to be allowed through a turbine to generate electrical energy.

Advantages

  • CAES relies largely on components which are mature and well understood, and could offer a robust and affordable means of storing large quantities of energy on the grid.
  • Long lifetime (35+ years)
  • Rely on robust mechanical components and no scarce materials.
  • Relatively low carbon footprint

Disadvantages

  • Site specific
  • long construction time and high capital cost
  • Low efficiency
  • Non-adiabatic systems rely on the combustion of natural gas during discharge, associated with some emission of carbon dioxide.
33
Q

Advantages/ disadvantages of Flywheels

A

Flywheels are accelerated by a motor using electricity. the electrical energy is then stored as the mechanical inertia of a flywheel. This energy can be retrieved when the process is reversed with the motor, now a generator, acting as a brake to extract the energy.

Advantages

  • Rapid response times (<1 sec)
  • High power density
  • High cycling efficiency
  • Rely on robust mechanical components and no scarce materials. Long lifetime.

Disadvantages

  • Suitable only for short durations (up to 15 mins) as a result of their low energy density
  • Idling losses during standby lead to high self-discharge
  • Due to the robust housing and operation in a vacuum, flywheels are relatively expensive.
34
Q

Advantages/ disadvantages of Liquid Air Energy Storage

A

LAES involves the liquefaction of air during time of peak supply. This liquid air is stored in a tank, and brought back to a gaseous state at times of peak demand, and uses that gas to turn a turbine and generate electricity.

Advantages

  • No specific geographical requirements for thermal technologies
  • Rely on robust mechanical components and no scarce materials.

Disadvantages

  • More costly than other bulk storage options (such as pumped hydro and compressed air)
  • Unlikely to be suitable for very fast response applications.
  • Some components require specific redesign to handle the high pressures and extreme temperatures.
35
Q

Outline electrochemical, mechanical, thermal, and electrical storage technologies and give examples of each

A

Electrochemical stores electrical energy as chemical potential energy during charge, and reconverts it to electrical energy during discharge.

  • Lead-acid batteries
  • Lithium-ion batteries
  • Redox flow batteries
  • High temperature sodium based batteries
  • Power-to-gas

Mechanical stores electrical energy in various forms through mechanical action.

  • Pumped Hydroelectric Storage
  • Compressed Air Energy Storage
  • Flywheel

Thermal stores electrical energy as thermal energy to be reconverted to electrical energy
- Liquid Air Energy Storage

Electromagnetic stores energy in electromagnetic fields

  • Supercapacitors
  • Superconducting Magnetic Energy storage
36
Q

Advantages/ disadvantages of supercapacitors

A

Energy is stored directly as the electric charge on the conductors creating an electrostatic field across dielectric material.

Advantages
- high-power, low-energy devices that react very quickly and exhibit a long cycle life (10,000+ cycles) at high efficiencies.

Disadvantages
- Very low energy density and high self-discharge lead to high energy capital costs and make them unsuitable for energy storage over longer periods of time.

37
Q

Advantages/ disadvantages of superconducting magnetic energy storage

A

SMES store electricity in a magnetic field generated by direct current flowing through a superconducting coil

Advantages
- High-power, low-energy devices that react almost instantaneously and exhibit a long cycle life at high efficiencies.

Disadvantages

  • The high cost of superconductors and the high system complexity make SMES very expensive and only suitable short term.
  • The high energy requirements of the refrigeration system lead to a high daily self-discharge.
38
Q

Why is industry challenging to decarbonise?

A
  • Sector is heterogenous
  • High temperature processes
  • Process emissions arising rom chemical processes
  • the issue of competitiveness and risk of carbon leakage
39
Q

The limitations of MAC curves

A
  • Very dependent on underlying assumptions, often not transparent.
  • Interactions and path dependency
  • Costs exclude indirect costs/ benefits
  • Assume rational agents with perfect information
  • Discount rate (social planner vs company view)
  • Intertemporal issues
  • No representation of uncertainty
40
Q

What is the Marchetti’s constant?

A

the average amount of time per day that a person spends commuting.

1.1-1.3 hrs per day, independent of wealth, race of geography.

41
Q

Co-benefits of mitigation in the transport sector

A
  • Health benefits of reduced vehicle exhaust emissions
  • Health benefits of increases human activity through walking and cycling
  • Reduced noise
  • Road transport is higher risk than other forms of transport
  • Modal shifts result in reduced traffic congestion
  • Improved public transport results in increased mobility for the poorest of society
42
Q

Outline the main problems with Energy System Models

A

Energy system models

  • set mitigation costs against a BAU baseline
  • fail to account for the dynamics of innovation
  • fail to account for human behaviour and dynamics

Energy system model exercises

  • lack transparency
  • do not systematically show why model results differ
  • seek to project costs beyond a reasonable time horizon
43
Q

Outline 4 ways energy system models are dominant in policymaking

A
  • Setting the international context for mitigation (IPCC)
  • Estimating costs of EU mitigation targets
  • Setting UK carbon budgets
  • Exploring consequences of technology innovation pathways

Mitigating Climate Change (1 decks)

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