Lecture Exam I Flashcards
Define anatomy and physiology .
Anatomy is the study of structures and physiology is the study of functions (science of the body observation & experimentation)
The study of formed and markings of the body surface, often explored through VISUALIZATION or PALPATION.
Surface Anatomy
Surface anatomy is the study of ____.
The study of formed and markings of the body surface, often explored through VISUALIZATION or PALPATION.
What are the two ways Gross Anatomy is studied?
Systemic Approach & Regional Approach
What is Gross Anatomy?
The study of anatomical structures visible to unaided eye after making the appropriate surface making the dissection process through “cutting”
What is Systemic Approach?
Gross anatomy studied by whole systems.
What is Regional Approach?
Gross anatomy studied by parts or sections of the body.
The study of fertilized egg developing into its adult form is _____.
Developmental Anatomy
What is Developmental Anatomy?
The study of fertilized egg developing into its adult form
What is a subcategory of Developmental Anatomy?
Embyrology
The subcategory of Developmental Anatomy studying conception to 8th week of gestation.
Embyrology
What is Embyrology?
The subcategory of Developmental Anatomy studying conception to 8th week of gestation.
What is histology and its subcategory?
Histology is the study of tissues and its subcategory is cytology, the study of tissues at the cellular level.
What is the study of anatomical changes due to disease?
Pathology
What is Pathology?
The study of anatomical changes due to disease
_____ use gross inspections, as well as cytologic, histologic, and & laboratory exams to discover the surface of the disease
Pathologist
List the levels of structural organization.
- Atom
- Molecule
- Cell
- Tissue
- Organ
- Organ System
- Organism
What are the processes that distinguish living from non-living?
- Metabolism- broad term includes all chemical reactions that occur within body cells
- Responsiveness- ability to sense change in environment and then respond to them
- Movement-
- Activities promoted by the muscular system, propelling ourselves from one place to another.
- Substances such as blood, foodstuffs, & urine are propelled through internal organs
- Cellular level, the muscle cell’s ability to move by shortening (contractility) - Growth- increase in size of body part or the organism as a while (increasing number of cells)
- Differentiation- development of specific and distinctive features in cells, from a single cell to all the specialized cells of adulthood
- Reproduction- cellular (original cell divides creating two daughter cells used for growth or repair) & organismal level (making a whole new person)
This is a broad term includes all chemical reactions that occur within body cells.
Metabolism
This is the ability to sense change in environment and then respond to them.
Responsiveness
Examples of ______ are:
- Activities promoted by the muscular system, propelling ourselves from one place to another.
- Substances such as blood, foodstuffs, & urine are propelled through internal organs
- Cellular level, the muscle cell’s ability to move by shortening (contractility)
Movement
______ is to increase in size of body part or the organism as a while (increasing number of cells).
Growth
_____ is the development of specific and distinctive features in cells, from a single cell to all the specialized cells of adulthood.
Differentiation
_____ happens at the cellular (original cell divides creating two daughter cells used for growth or repair) & organismal level (making a whole new person)
Reproduction
A condition of equilibrium (balance) in the body’s internal environment. It is a DYNAMIC CONDITION meant to keep body functions in the narrow compatible with maintaining life.
Homeostasis
What is homeostasis?
A condition of equilibrium (balance) in the body’s internal environment. It is a DYNAMIC CONDITION meant to keep body functions in the narrow compatible with maintaining life.
What are three components of mechanical feedback?
- Receptor- monitors changes in controlled conditions
- Control Center- sets range of values to be maintained, evaluation creating output
- Effectors- receives output data from control center and produce a response of effect that changes the controlled condition
Most homeostatic control mechanisms are positive or negative feedback mechanisms?
Negative
In these systems, the output shuts off the original effect of the stimulus or reduces its intensity. These mechanisms cause the variable to change in a direction OPPOSITE to that of the initial change, returning it to its “ideal” value.
Negative Feedback Mechanism
What process allows us to adjust to either extreme heat or cold?
Negative feedback mechanisms allow us to adjust to conditions outside the normal temperature range by causing heat to be lost from the body (in hot conditions) and retained or generated by the body (in cold conditions).
When we begin to get dehydrated, we usually get thirsty, which causes us o drink fluids. Is thirst a part of positive or negative feedback control system? Explain.
Thirst is part of a negative feedback control system because it prods us to drink, which ends the thirst stimulus and returns body fluid volume to the normal range.
The result or response enhances the original stimulus so that the response is accelerated; the change that results proceeds in the SAME direction as the initial change, cause the variable to deviate further and further from its original value or range.
Positive Feedback
Why is the control system shown in Figure 1.6 called a positive feedback mechanism? What event ends it?
This is a positive feedback mechanism because it enhances the change (formation of a platelet plug) set into motion by the stimulus (damage to the blood vessel). The response ends when the platelet plug has plugged the hole in the blood vessel.
What cavities are contained in the ventral cavity?
Thoracic & abdominopelvic cavities
What organs are house in the cranial and vertebral cavity?
Cranial- brain
Vertebral- spinal cord
What organs are housed in the ventral cavity?
visceral organs- heart, lunch, most of the organs in the digestive and reproductive system
Walls and outer surfaces of the organs it contains are covered by a thin, double layered membrane called _____. Name the two types.
Serous membranes
Parietal- lines walls
Visceral- lines organ
The thin layer of lubricating fluid which separates both membranes?
Serous fluid
What is the function of serous fluid?
thin layer of lubricating fluid to reduce friction and allow movement
What cavities are contained in the dorsal cavity?
Cranial- houses brain
Vertebral- house spinal cord
Name cavity surrounded by ribs and muscles of the chest, subdivided in two. Name both subdivisions and which organs are housed.
Thoracic cavity- surrounded by ribs and muscles of the chest, subdivided into:
Pleural cavities- houses lunges (parietal & visceral pleurae)
Mediastinum- contains pericardial cavity, encloses heart (parietal & visceral pericardium)
This cavity is inferior to thoracic cavity and separated by diaphragm (dome shaped muscle important in breathing).
Abdominopelvic cavity
Superior Abdominopelvic cavity containing stomach, intestines, spleen, liver, and more
Abdominal cavity
Inferior Abdominopelvic cavity lies in the bony pelvis and contains the urinary bladder, some reproductive organs, and the rectum
Pelvic cavity
What is an autopsy?
Postmortem exam of body & internal organs performed by a pathologist.
What is the purpose of an autopsy?
Autopsies are usually done to determine cause of death, identify disease not detected during life, and/or determine the extent of an injury & contributed to death.
In health, all part of the body must be functioning together in a process called _____?
Homeostasis
What is intracellular fluid?
Fluid within the cells
What is extracellular fluid (ECF)?
fluid outside cells
What is interstitial fluid?
Extracellular fluid between cells and tissues
List different body fluids.
Blood Plasma Lymph Cerebrospinal Synovial Aqueous
_____ is ECF witin the blood vessel and ____ is ECF within lymphatic vessels.
Blood plasma; Lymph
This type of ECF is found in the brain and spinal cord
Cerebrospinal
This type of ECF is found in joints
Synovial
This ECF is found in eye
Aqueous Humor
What could disrupt the ability to maintain homeostasis in the body?
- Age- processes slow and decrease
- Genetics- ex. predisposition to high cholesterol “runs in family”
- Overall health- diet and exercise
Scenario: A man is engaged in heavy exercise with 180 beats per minute. Which of the following answers are acceptable?
A. Young adult
B. Young, healthy adult
C. Older adult with cardiovascular and respiratory issues
B, Young, healthy adult (based off information given this answer is the most specific and accurate)
How is homeostasis maintained?
Through a cycle of events:
- Body monitors and re-monitors
- Each monitored variable is termed a controlled condition
- followed by mechanical feedback
What are the three components to mechanical feedback?
Receptor- monitors changes in controlled conditions
Control Center- sets range of values to be maintained, evaluation creating output
Effectors- receives output data from control center and produce a response of effect that changes the controlled condition
In the mechanical feedback system _____ monitors changes in controlled .conditions.
Receptors
In the mechanical feedback system _____ sets range of values to be maintained, evaluation creating output.
Control Center
In the mechanical feedback system _____ receives output data from control center and produce a response of effect that changes the controlled condition.
Effectors
Name this feedback system based off scenario: Ca+ (Calcium) decrease in the blood. Parathyroid Hormone is released from Parathyroid gland. Soon after blood Ca+ levels begin to rise to “normal” range.
Negative Feedback-
These mechanisms cause the variable to change in a direction OPPOSITE to that of the initial change
What are two examples of positive feedback?
Childbirth and platelet plug formation
List functions of the Integumentary System.
- Protective barrier
- Reduces water loss
- Regulation of body temperature
- Sensory perception
- Immune system
- Secretion of chemicals
- Excretes waste
What structures are included in the Integumentary System?
Skin, hair, nails, and glands, blood vessels, muscles, and nerves
_____ is the medical specialty for the diagnosis and treatment of disorders of the integumentary system.
Dermatology
Name this structure:
- Covers entire body
- Largest organ by surface area and weight
- Fun fact: covers 22 ft², weighs 10-11 lbs, approx. 16% of body weight, average thickness is 1-2mm
Integumentary system structure called skin.
Name the two layers of skin
Epidermis & Dermis
Name this layer of skin: outer, thinner layer
Epithelial tissue
Epidermis
Name this layer of skin: inner, thicker layer
Dermis
What is directly below the dermis and what is its function?
Subcutaneous layer, called the hypodermis (not considered a true layer of skin)
Function: attaches the skin to the underlying tissues and organs
What types of cells is the Epidermis composed?
keratinized stratified squamous epithelium
What are the 4 major types of cells in the epidermis?
- Keratinocytes
- Melanocytes
- Langerhans cells/Dendritic cells
- Merkel cells/Tactile cells
Name these types of cells found in the epidermis:
•90% of cells
•Produces keratin – a tough, fibrous protein that provides protection
•Lamellar granules release a sealant to prevent water loss and provides protection
Keratinocytes
Name these types of cells found in the epidermis:
•Produces melanin to protect from UV radiation
•Type of protein, meaning the cells will have Rough ER
•Found only in stratum basale
Melanocytes
Name these types of cells found in the epidermis:
•Functions as a macrophage (large cell) – undergoes phagocytosis - to alert the immune system against invading microbes
•Arises from red bone marrow
•Found in stratum spinosum and stratum granulosum
Langerhans cells/Dendritic cells
Name these types of cells found in the epidermis:
•Sensory touch receptors in stratum basale
Merkel cells/Tactile cells
Name this layer of the epidermis:
•Deepest layer
•Produces all layers above it through mitosis
Stratum Basale
Name this layer of the epidermis:
•8-10 layers of keratinocytes
•Contain desmosomes, which tightly joins them together
•Provides strength and flexibility without damage
Stratum Spinosum
Name this layer of the epidermis:
•Transition layer
•Changing shape, getting ready to die
•Contains keratohyalin to convert to keratin
•Contains lamellar granules
•Secretes lipid-rich substance, which is a sealant/water-repellant
Stratum Granulosum
Name this layer of the epidermis:
•Present only in thick skin (fingertips, palms, feet)
•Dead keratinocytes
•Lacks nucleus
Stratum Lucidum
Name this layer of the epidermis:
•Outermost layer
•Made up of flat, dead keratinocytes called corneocytes
•Continuously shed and replaced by cells from deeper strata
•Constant friction can stimulate formation of a callus
•Friction stimulates an increase in mitosis (in the stratum basale) in that particular area which results in more cells being created than are being sloughed off
Stratum Corneum
What structures are found in the dermis?
hair folicles blood vessels nerves sensory receptors sweat glands sebaceous glands
What are the two regions of the dermis?
- Outer papillary region
2. Deeper Reticular Region
This region found in the dermis, consists of areolar connective tissue containing collagen & elastic fibers. Also, it contains papillae & capillary loops for exchange of nutrients.
Outer papillary region
Structures found in the outer papillary region of the dermis include:
- Corpuscles of touch (2 types)
- free nerve endings
Meissner’s Corpuscles of touch are:
more sensitive, more superficial
Paciniah Corpuscles of touch are:
larger & fewer which respond to vibrations
Which corpuscles are most superficial?
Meissner’s Corpuscles of touch
This region found in the dermis, consists of dense irregular connective tissue.
Deeper Reticular Region
Structures found in the Deeper Reticular Region of the dermis include:
- Thick collagen fibers & elastic fibers from fibroblast
- Fibers- give strength, extensibility, & elastic fibers
_____ can appear if the skin is stretched too much.
Striae (stretch marks)
What are “Lines of Cleavage” and who finds them important?
“tension lines” in the skin which dictates the predominant direction of underlying collagen fibers; Plastic Surgeons
_____ reflect contours of the underlying dermal papillae & form the basis for fingerprints. List their function.
Epidermal Ridges; increase firmness of grip by increasing friction
What are the three types of pigments which cause variations in skin color?
- Melanin (red-yellow, brown-blackl)
- Cartene (yellow-orange)
- Hemoglobin (red)
True or false: Melanin production of pigment is different among person to person, not the number of cells to each individual contains.
True
Melanin is produced by _____ mostly located in the epidermis.
Melanocytes
What is a nevus?
benign localized overgrowth of melanocytes (mole)
This autoimmune disorder is the inherited inability to produce melanin
Albinism
This autoimmune disorder is a partial or complete loss of melanocytes from patches of skin
Vitiligo
This pigment is located in the stratum corneum, dermis and subcutaneous layer.
Carotene
This pigment is located in erythrocytes flowing through dermal capilaries (iron portion=heme)
Hemoglobin
This is not a true layer of skin. What is this layers function?
Subcutaneous- Hypodermis
Function: attaches skin to underlying tissue and organs
What structures are found in the subcutaneous layer?
Adipocytes (protection& thermoregulation)
Lamellated (Pacinan) corpuscles of touch
What are the functions of pili (hairs)?
- protection
- reduction of heat loss
- sensing light touch
List structures of hair
shaft
root
hair follicle
bulb
What are the 3 steps in hair growth? briefly explain each.
- Growth- new cells added to base creating length; 2-6yr phase
- Regression- hair follicle atrophies, growth stops 2-3wk phase
- Resting- 3mo phase followed by new growth cycle
What can affect hair growth?
Nutrition/diet
Overall health (mental, emotional, and physical)
Medication
Partial or complete lack of hair
Alopecia
One or more spots of hair loss; autoimmune disorder affecting males and females (may be inherited)
Alopecia areata
Male & female patterned baldness occurring slowly over years, due to sensitivity hormone
Androgenic Alopecia
List three types of hair and briefly describe each
- Lanugo- downy, non-pigmented hairs, 5th month of development
- Vellus- short, fine, pale hairs (peach fuzz)
- Terminal- long course, pigmented
What colors are associated with the following types of melanin:
- Eumelanin
- Pheomelanin
- Trichosiderin (derivative of Pheomelanin)
- Dark colored hair
- Blonde & red
- Red
These skin glands attach to hair follicles and secrete sebum (lipid,cell debris).
Sebaceous skin glands
These are sweat glands containing two types
Sudoriferous (Sweat)
- Eccrine
- Apocrine
These sweat glands are located on the forehead neck and back, They are the most number types and secrete during physical activity or environment for thermoregulation.
Eccine Sudoriferous (Sweat) Glands
These sweat glands are located in skin of axilla, groin, and bearded facial regions of adult males. They secrete into hair follicles during emotional stress or sexual excitement containing yellowish or milks color. *active after puberty
Apocrine Sudoriferous (Sweat) Glands
Ceruminous glands are modified glands which produce what? Name location and function
Cerumen (earwax)
location: ears
function: protection
___ are comprised of hard, keratinized epidermis cells
Nails (accessory structure to skin)
List different types of body temperature regulation and briefly describe.
Radiation- primary means of heat loss (warmer surface -> cooler surrounding)
Conduction- heat into cooler objects (warm butt on cold seat)
Convection- heat to air-> circulated away from body & replaced by cooler air (standing in front of fan on summer day)
Evaporation- sweat from liquid->gas
Does a wound in the epidermis bleed? Why or why not?
No; no blood vessels
What are the four steps in wound healing?
Step 1. Inflammation,
Step 2. Migration,
Step 3. Proliferation,
Step 4. Maturation,
Name this step in wound healing:
redness due to vasodilation of blood vessels. Heat due to increased metabolic activity of white blood cells. Swelling due to increased interstitial fluid in area and increased blood flow. Pain due to pressure on nerve ending. Blood clot forms.
Inflamation
Name this step in wound healing: clots then scabs; epithelial cells migrate beneath scab for repair, scar tissue is synthesized and damaged blood vessels begin to grow
Migration
Name this step in wound healing: continued, extensive growth as blood vessels are repaired and scab forms
Proliferation
Name this step in wound healing: wound filled in, scab sloughs off and returns to normal or lighter in color
Maturation
When your finger heals, you notice that the skin is lighter in color where the scab fell off. Why is the skin lighter in color?
No exposure to sun; UV radiation absorbed into the skin activates melanocytes, producing the pigment melanin which darkens the skin
Name this type of burn:
- Damage only to epidermis ex. mild sunburn (no blistering)
- localized redness, swelling, & pain
- blood coming to surface to expedite mitosis, increased fluid in area cause pain
- skin may shed
- heals in few days- 2 weeks, no scaring
Superficial Partial Thickness- 1st degree
Name this type of burn:
- epidermis & upper (papillary) dermis damages
- blisters, moist, redness, swelling, & pain
- can cause scaring if infection sets in opened blisters
- heals 2-4 weeks with little to no scaring if no infection
Deep Partial Thickness- 2nd degree
Name this type of burn:
- All layers of skin and accessory organs
- pain receptors damaged
- dry leathery, red, black, or white in color
- skin graft usually needed either from self (autograft), homograft (cadaver), or synthetic membrane or cells grown in lab
Full Thickness- 3rd degree
What is the most common cancer in the USA and how many diagnosed each year?
What is the rate in which Americans will develop this cancer in the course of a lifetime?
- Skin cancer
- 5.4 million basal and squamous cell skin cancer
- 1 in 5 Americans
What is an example of a tumor that may be benign and does not metastasize?
Nevus (mole)
What is in cells that prevent cancer?
Cancer suppressor gene
What are the three types of skin cancers?
- Basal Cell Carcinoma
- Squamous Cell Carcinoma
- Melanomas
Name this type of skin cancer:
- Least malignant, most common
- Stratum Basale cells proliferate & invade dermis
- Appear shiny, dome shaped nodules
- Cured by surgical excision 99% of the time
- Can be scaring & disfiguration, not usually life threatening
Basal Cell Carcinoma
Name this type of skin cancer:
- 2nd most common from keratinocytes of stratum spinosum
- Firm red node on face, lips, ears, neck, hands, or arms
- Grows rapidly & more likely to spread than BCC
- Metastasizes if not removed surgically or by radiation
Squamous Cell Carcinoma
Name this type of skin cancer:
- Cancer of melanocytes, most dangerous & responsible for most skin cancer deaths
- Appears most often on upper back or face, but can occur anywhere there is pigment
- Metastasizes & resistant to chemotherapy, wide surgical excision
- <5% of skin cancer cases, but causes more than 75% if skin cancer deaths
Melanomas
American Cancer Society suggests examination by the ABCDE method for recognizing melanoma. List this method
A- Asymmetry, two sides of pigmented spot do not match
B- Border Irregularity, border exhibits indentations
C- Color, black brown, red, blue
D- Diameter, larger than 6mm (pencil eraser)
E- Evolution, change in time
