Lecture Exam 1 (Chapter 1,2,3) Flashcards
Anatomy
the study of form and structure
Physiology
the study of function
“Form follows function”
a concept that a structure in the body is designed to do its job
Microscopic anatomy
the study of structures in the body that are not visible to the unaided/naked eye
cytology
the study of cells
“Cyte” is the prefix/suffix used to indicate
cell
histology
the study of tissues
“Histo” is used to indicate
tissue
Systemic
studies a specific organ system
Regional
studies a particular area/region of the body
Surface
studies structures that are visible/can be palpated on surface of the body.
Comparative
Compares and contrasts different species
Embryology
studies the development of an organism from conception to birth
Pathologic
studies the changes in anatomy and physiology that occurs due disease
Radiographic
studies structures/functions that are visualized by scanning procedures such as X-ray and MRI
List the 6 characteristics of living things and create a mnemonic to help you remember them
Organization, Metabolism, Growth and Development, Responsiveness, Regulation, Reproduction
Organization
exhibits structure and order
Metabolism
the sum of all the chemical reactions that occur within the body
Growth and development
the assimilation of materials from the environment to increase in size and/or complexity
Responsiveness
the ability to sense and react to stimuli
Regulation
the ability to adjust internal function to accommodate environmental changes
i. The ability to maintain homeostasis
Reproduction
the ability to produce new cells for growth, maintenance and repair. Also refers to the ability to generate new organisms through asexual or sexual means
List the hierarchy of organization from simplest to most complex
a. Chemical
b. Cellular
c. Tissue
d. Organ
e. Organ System
f. Organism
What is the lowest level of organization that can be considered “alive/living”?
Cellular Level – a cell displays all the characteristic of life
Homeostasis
the ability to maintain a consistent internal environment in response to changing environmental conditions
What are the 3 components of homeostatic mechanisms?
a. Sensor/Receptor
b. Control/Integrating Center
c. Effectors
Sensor/Receptor
i. Constantly monitors the environment and detects changes in a variable (stimulus)
ii. Relays information to the control center of that variable
Control/Integrating Center
i. Usually an area of the brain
ii. Receives and processes information from the sensor
iii. Decides on a response
iv. Activates effectors as needed
Effectors
i. Usually muscles and glands
ii. Produce the response
1. Muscles contract to produce movement
2. Glands release their products
Negative Feedback
Occurs when the body detects a change and then produces a response to counteract the change.
Variable/parameter will fluctuate within a normal range around a “set point”
Positive Feedback
a. A temporary, purposeful push away from normal to achieve a desired outcome/climactic event
b. “More, more, more….until”
c. Amplifies change
Matter
is anything that has mass and occupies space
An atom
is the smallest particle exhibiting the chemical properties of an element
Which 4 elements compose the vast majority of the weight of the human body (~97%)?
Hydrogen, Oxygen, Carbon, and Nitrogen
3 components of an atom
neutrons, protons, & electrons
Neutrons
i. No charge
ii. Found in the nucleus
iii. Number of neutrons can vary without changing the element or the charge
Protons
i. Positively-charged particles in the nucleus
ii. Number of protons determines the element (atomic number)
Electrons
i. Negatively-charged particles that are much smaller than the other two
ii. Located at varying distances from the nucleus in regions called orbitals or energy shells
iii. Orbital are filled from inside out, starting with the orbital closest to the nucleus.
the orbital/shell closest to the nucleus can hold a maximum of
2 electrons
The 2nd, 3rd, 4th, etc. orbitals/shells can hold a maximum of
8 electrons
Isotopes
are different atoms of the same element. The number of protons and electrons are the same, but the number of neutrons are different.
a. Some isotopes are unstable (radioactive)
What are radioisotopes/radioactive isotopes?
Isotopes that contain excess neutrons, which makes them unstable
This is called radioactive decay
Unstable isotopes will release energy to stabilize
The electrons in the outermost orbital/shell of an atom are called
valence electrons
This is known as the octet rule.
An atom is most stable when all the shells are full. They will either share, lose, or gain electrons to fill their shells.
Ions are
atoms or molecules that have a charge
Cations
positively-charged atoms and molecules
Anions
negatively-charged atoms and molecules
Ionic Bonds
Bond formed between two or more atoms that have opposite charges
Covalent Bonds
Bond formed when electrons are shared between two or more atoms
A molecular formula indicates
the number and types of atoms
Structural Formula and Examples
Similar to a molecular formula in that it indicates the number and types of atoms, but also indicates the arrangement of the atoms within the molecule.
Isomers
Molecules with the same molecular formula but different structural formulas
Nonpolar covalent
i. “Share and share alike”
ii. Electrons are shared equally between the two atoms
iii. Overall molecule doesn’t have a charge
iv. Strongest of the 4 bonds covered
Polar covalent
i. One atom “hogs” the electron
ii. Electrons are shared, but unequally
iii. Whichever side of the molecule the electron spends more time will maintain a slight negative charge
iv. The other side maintains a slight positive charge
v. Polar = any substance that has a charge
vi. Not as strong as a nonpolar covalent
The number of covalent bonds an atom can form is determined by how many
valence electrons it has and how many more it needs to fill its shells.
Amphipathic Molecules
molecules with both polar and nonpolar regions
Example: phospholipids (covered later in the chapter)
The polar part interacts with water, the nonpolar part repels wate
Hydrogen Bonds
a. Weak chemical attraction between polar molecules (the positively-charge hydrogen atom on one molecule to a negatively-charged atom on a separate molecule)
b. Weakest of the 4 bonds covered
c. Individually weak, but collectively strong
d. Easily broken, but also easily reform
e. Important component of water
f. Important for maintaining the shape of complex molecules such as proteins and DNA
Properties of Water
b. Individual water molecules are polar
i. Oxygen side of the molecule maintains a slight negative charge
ii. Hydrogen side of the molecule maintains a slight positive charge
iii. VERY IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTIC = CAN INTERACT WITH ANYTHING THAT HAS A CHARGE
Functions of Water
a. Transports – substances dissolved in water move easily
b. Lubricates – decreases friction between structures
c. Cushions – buffers movement and absorbs force
d. Excretion – substances dissolved in water can be easily eliminated from the body
What makes water such a great solvent?
It can interact with anything that has a charge because it has a positive end and a negative end.
“Like dissolves like”
Water is polar, so it can dissolve other polar substances (ex. Salts, sugars)
Polar molecules are called
hydrophilic because they readily dissolve in water
pH
a. measurement of hydrogen concentration of a solution
b. Involves a balance between H+ and OH-
i. If H+ = OH-, the solution is called neutral and will have a pH of 7
ii. If H+ > OH-, the solution is called acidic and will have a pH less than 7
iii. If H+ < OH-, the solution is called basic/alkaline and will have a pH greater than 7
What are buffers?
a. Substances that stabilize pH
b. Consists of 2 components:
i. A weak acid that neutralizes any bases added to the solution
1. Example: carbonic acid in the blood
ii. A weak base that neutralizes any acids added to the solution
1. Example: bicarbonate in the blood
The pH of blood needs to be kept in a very narrow range of 7.35 – 7.45 for the body to function properly
a. If blood pH falls below 7.35, the condition is called acidosis
b. If blood pH rises above 7.45, the condition is called alkalosis
What are organic molecules? What are the 4 major classes in the body?
a. Organic molecules contain C and H and are associated with living organisms
b. The four major classes are:
i. Carbohydrates
ii. Lipids
iii. Proteins
iv. Nucleic acids
What makes carbon such a great “building block” for life?
a. It has 4 valence electrons, so it doesn’t like to donate or accept electrons. Instead, it likes to share electrons (covalent bonds)
b. It likes to form nonpolar covalent bonds (the strongest bonds)
c. It also readily forms double bonds, carbon rings, and carbon chains
d. Carbon rings and carbon chains can be built off of in a seemingly endless array
Stereoisomers and Examples
a. Stereoisomers contain the same number of atoms in the same sequence but have a slight difference in the arrangement of functional groups
b. A given enzyme in the body may “prefer” a particular stereoisomer over the other
Cis vs Trans
i. Cis = the functional groups are on the same side of the molecule
ii. Trans = the functional groups are on opposite sides of the molecule
d. Right-handed vs Left-handed
i. Right is designated by the letters R or D
ii. Left is designated by the letters L or S
iii. The body can only use right-handed sugars and left-handed amino acids
Monomers are “building blocks” used to
build larger molecules
Polymers are created by
linking monomers together
Carbohydrates
i. Contain C, H, and O in a 1:2:1 ratio
b. Main function in body
i. Energy and energy storage
c. Includes sugars and starches
Which 3-letter suffix indicates a carb/sugar?
i. “-ose”
Monosaccharide
i. Commonly called “simple sugars”
ii. Consist of one carbon ring
iii. Monomers used to build larger sugars and starches
iv. Examples: Glucose, fructose, and galactos
Disaccharide
i. Two sugars linked together by a covalent bond
ii. Examples:
1. Glucose + fructose = sucrose
2. Glucose + galactose = lactose
3. Glucose + glucose = maltose
Polysaccharide
i. Polymer created by linking several monosaccharides together
ii. Examples:
1. Starch – sugar storage in plants
2. Cellulose – structural polysaccharide in plants
3. Chitin – structural polysaccharide in the shells and exoskeletons of certain organisms
4. Glycogen – energy storage in animals
a. Will be talked about in BIOL 201 and 202
