Lecture Exam 1 Flashcards
(210 cards)
0
Q
Analogy
A
Similar function
e.i. Bird and bat wings
1
Q
Homology
A
Common ancestry
e.i. Forelimbs of bird and crocodile
2
Q
Homoplasy
A
Similar appearance
e.i. Sail fin on fish and sail back reptile
3
Q
Homocercal tail
A
Dorsal and ventral same size, provides thrust, found with swim bladder
4
Q
Heterocercal tail
A
Dorsal bigger then ventral, provides lift, found without swim bladder
5
Q
Archaeopteryx
A
Have both reptile and bird traits
6
Q
Lobe fin
A
Preadapted to evolve to tetrapods
7
Q
True chordate fila
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Cephalochordata, urochordata, vertebrata
8
Q
Fila with some chordate feature
A
Hemichordata
9
Q
Chordate features
A
Notochord,dorsal hollow nerve cord, pharyngeal slits, post-anal tail, endostyle/thyroid gland
10
Q
Endostyle
A
Mucus producing
11
Q
Thyroid gland
A
Hormone producing
12
Q
Notochord
A
Fluid filled cells, rigid/flexible = structure/movement, early in embryos but degrade in adults, under dorsal hollow nerve cord
13
Q
Pharyngeal slits
A
Behind buckle cavity in pharynx, exit for filter feeding, embryo in mammals
14
Q
Protocordates
A
Hemichordates, chephalochordates, urochordates
15
Q
Deuterostomes
A
Develop anus then head
16
Q
Hemichordates
A
Pharyngeal slits develop differently, anus at tip of tail, collar nerve cord (develop differently, ciliary mucus feeder, body plan (proboscis, collar, trunk). e.i. Acorn worm
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Q
Hemichordates larvae
A
Free swimming similar to echinoderm
18
Q
Cephalochordates
A
Marine, closer to Hemichordates
e.i. Amphioxus, lamprey
19
Q
Urochordate
A
Adults lack tail and notochord, branchial basket (pharynx), closer to vertebrates. e.i. Tunicates, larvacea, “sea skirt”
20
Q
Larvacea
A
Urochordate, release mucus that creates “house”
21
Q
Origin of chordate body plan theories
A
Anthropod/annelid ancestor or echinoderm ancestor
22
Q
Anthropoid ancestor to chordates
A
Segment, ventral not hollow nerve cord (flipped), false
23
Q
Echinoderm ancestor to chordates
A
Hemichordates larva similar to echinoderm larva, bilateral symmetry, deuterostomes (Gastang)
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Echinoderm larva. How is notochord formed?
Similar to chordates but elongated (ciliary bands form nerve cords
25
Larva sizes
Locomotion (cilia then segmented muscles and notochord), feeding changes (adoral band/cilia use endostyle then water intake use pharyngeal slits)
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Paedomorphosis
Juvenile able to breed. e.i. Salamander
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Ancestor of chordates
Echinoderm
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First complex life
542 mya
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First vertebrate/chordate
.5 bya, Cambrian period in Paleozoic era
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Fossil types
Impression and mineralized
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Impression
Fine silt
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Mineralized fossils
Hard structures convert to rock
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Dating fossils
Stratigraphy (comparison) and radioisotopes (uranium to lead and potassium to argon)
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What can you find out from fossils?
Behavior/social interactions, fair, skin texture
35
Ostracoderms
Early fish, jawless
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Placoderm
Jaw fish
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Early Paleozoic
Ostracoderms, placoderm
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Chondrichthyes
Shark, cartage skeleton
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Osteichthyes (types)
Bony fish, types: sarcopterygian and actinopterygian
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Sarcopterygian example
e.i. Lung fish and coelacanth
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Actinopterygian example
e.i. 1. Sturgeon, paddle fish, bichirs 2. Gars, amia 3. Salmon, perch, bass, etc...
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Late Paleozoic
Chondrichthyes, Osteichthyes, tetrapod
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Describe first tetrapod. (Years ago)
Amphibian-like 400 mya (e.i. Acanthostega with polydactyl digits), reptile 270 mya
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Endothermic bones
Have osteons
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Osteons
Long cylinders in bones
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Ectotherm bones
Have growth rings
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Early tetrapod bones
Rings but not osteons
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Dinosaur bones
Osteons but no definite growth rings
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Turbinates
Nasal conchae, warms and moistens air and recover moisture during exhalation (dinosaurs don't have)
50
Primitive vertebrae
Protect neural tube: arches around neural tube, ventral arches around arteries, prominent notochord
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Arcualia theory of vertebrae development
Evolutionary fusion of blocks, false: tetrapods develop differently
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Resegmentation
Somite grow in repeated units down neural tube, separate into pieces (dermis, body, vertebrae), vertebrae grow around notochord-perichordal tube, resegment (.5 and .5), notochord degenerates
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Vertebrae formation theories
Shark arculia and resegmentation (true)
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Aspidospondyly
Vertebrae spines and centra are separate, primitive/flexible. e.i. Rhachitomous
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Holospondyle
Vertebra and centrum connected, firm/weight baring, e.i. Lepospondyle
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Bowfish
Have both aspidospondyl and holospondyl
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Early placoderm vertebrae
Larger notocord but increased vertebrae
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Chondrichthyes vertebrae
Reduced notocord but still present
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Fins and girdles purpose
Muscle attachment, bone or cartilage
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Limbs and girdles purpose
Stabilize limbs, carry propulsive force, muscle attachment
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Part fins to limbs
Basal-stylopodium, radials-zeugopodium, dermal-autopodium
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Theories for fins to limbs
Gill arch theory and fin fold theory
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Gill arch theory
(Karl Gegenbaur) extend gill ray to become fins, what about pelvic fins?
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Fin fold theory
(Francis Balfour) ventral ridges/fin folds in Agnathans stiffened by internal structures
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Why evolve fins?
Streamline but balanced: pitch, yaw, roll
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Pitch
Up down force
67
Yaw
Left/right force
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Roll
Force that turns over
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Ostracoderms other features
Early Agnathans, no pelvic girdle, reverse heterocercal tail (not active)
70
Primitive bony fish
Have pectoral and pelvic girdle, active
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Modern shark pectoral girdle
Basals fuse to form
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Bony fish pectoral girdle
Most dermal bone, small amount endochondral none, port temporal attach skull
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Dermal bone
Beneath skin
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Endochondral bone
Cartilage to bone
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Modification after fin to limb
Pelvic/pectoral girdle modest in fish and weight bearing in tetrapod, early tetrapod dermal reduced and not attached to skull (force not passed to skill)
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Coelacanths
400 mya (thought extinct 65 mya), found to still be alive, hover and stabilize water column using lobe fins, 2 species (Africa and Indonesia)
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Coelacanth discovery
1930s: Courtney Latimer caught in S Africa. 1950s: another caught and preserved
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Pectoral girdle dual origin
endochondral component - basal fin elements (articulation and attachments) and dermal - dermal armor (brace)
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Lobe fin
Preadapted into limbs
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Why move to land?
Escape predation or aestivation but stay in water
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Catfish and mud puppies
Modified/elongated pectoral fins, moved forwards, mud puppies hold water in mouth
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Pectoral girdle pieces
Scapula, procoracoid, coracoid
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Pectoral girdle modification
Endochondral component becomes more prominent
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Pelvic girdle bone types and fusion
Only endochondral, fuse with adjacent vertebrae to stabilize (forces distributed to vertebrae)
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Pelvic bones
Pelvis, ischium, ilium
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Synapsids to mammals
Excavation (lighter because holes), orientation (align forces with travel direction), pubis/muscles reduced
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Synapsids
Mammal-like tetrapod
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Biomechanics
How form and function are related to engineering
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Forces
Static (gravity) and dynamic (motion)
90
Compression
Push together
91
Tension
Pull apart
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Shear
Opposing forces (bend in half)
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What forces can bones resist most?
Compression > tension > shear
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Microfractures
Imperfections concentrate forces
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Leading
How forces are distributed
96
More stable leading
Asymmetrical leading
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How to prevent breaks
Counter weight, bigger brace (e.i. Tendon-iliotibial tract)
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Continuous force
Atrophy. e.i. Tumor
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Unstressed force
Atrophy. e.i. Astronaut
100
Intermittent force
Hypertrophy. e.i. Normal
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Atrophy
Reduction bone mass
102
Hypertrophy
Increased bone mass
103
Stressed trajectory
Focused at periphery, forms compact bones
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Trabeculae
Spongy bone
105
Wolf's Law
Bone remolding proportional to mechanical forces applied
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Piezoelectricity
Negative charge = bone depression = compression
107
Why biped locomotion?
Height,sight, more forelimb use
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Modifications for bipedal locomotion
Feet have arches, legs further apart, shorter pelvis, s-shaped vertebral column, axial muscles and ligament stabilization
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Foot arches
Weight spread out
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Legs further apart
Femur angled, allows balance
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Shorter pelvis
Lowers waist and center of gravity
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A-shaped vertebral collumn
Shock absorber
113
Suspension support
Static support
114
Resist compression
Neural spines and centra
115
Resist tension
Muscles/ligaments
116
Biological node
Reversal of neural spine direction
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Counter balance
Tail
118
Expanded cervical
Increase head movement
119
Separate lumbar
No interference with hind limbs
120
Streamlining
Reduce drag to maximize propulsion
121
Lateral undulation
Used by fish, amphibians, and reptiles
122
What organisms use cursorial motion?
Mammals and dinosaurs (developed separately)
123
Therapsid modifications
Limbs/digits rotated forward (direction of travel), limbs under body
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Limbs under body
Ease of motion, pendulum swing (adductor reduced), developed independently in dinosaurs
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Lateral sequence gate
3/4 limbs in contact together, stable
126
Speed =
Stride length x stride rate
127
Increase stride length
1. Distal elements lengthen 2. Foot posture with less contact 3. Joint addition to locomotor mechanism 4. Increase flexion
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Flexion
Distance limbs move while off ground
129
Increase stride rate
1. Muscle location 2. Muscle mass (lighten distally) 3. Digit reduction (lighten distally)
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Lighten distally
Reduce inertia
131
Gates
Pattern foot touches ground
132
Amble
Forelimbs and hind feet move in unison
133
Fast amble
Pace
134
Troy
Diagonally opposite limbs move together
135
Half-bound
Hind feet contact a same time, forefeet lead and trail
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Gallop
All feet leading and trailing, high speed
137
Print (bound)
All four in unison, decelerates
138
Larger animal travel
Less flexion, less energy, endurance
139
Smaller animal travel
More energy, speed
140
Ariel locomotion
Movement through air
141
Jumping
Escape predators
142
Parachuting
Increase drag, soft impact
143
Gliding
Deflect line of fall, increase lift
144
Flailing
Increase distance
145
Classes with powered flight
Birds, bats, pterosaurs
146
Flying squirrel
Gliding skin
147
Pigmy opossum
Parachuting cup body
148
Colugo "flying lemur"
Largest flap of skin includes tail and fingers
149
Flying frog
Webbed feet
150
Flying lizard "flying dragon"
Long ribs
151
Flying snake
Flatten ribs into cup shape
152
Flying fish
Large pectoral fins
153
Bats
Fold of skin (body to digits), manis only in wings not whole arm
154
Pterosaurs
Sparrow size to 40 ft wing span, membrane extends to elongated 5th digit
155
Birds
Most efficient adaptations, primary and secondary feather
156
Origin of flight hypotheses
Arboreal, insect net, and climbing
157
Insect-net theory
running with short hops, wings used to catch insects/small prey
158
Climbing theory
Wing assisted incline running motion same as flying motion. Archaeopteryx don't have claws for climbing
159
Bernoulli's principle
As fluid velocity increased, pressure fluid decreases
160
Airfoils
Allows separation of fluid velocities
161
Cambered wing
Front of wing thicker; air flows over top faster, decreases pressure while under pressure increases causing lift
162
Horizontal wing
Lift greater then drag
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Partially Angled wing
Lifts more but also more drag
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Extremely angled wing
Decreases lift and increases drag
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Secondary feathers
Forearm, lift
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Primary feathers
Phylanges, thrust
167
Soaring vs thrust wings
Thrust increased manus and thrust, soaring increased forearm and increase lift
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Soaring wing shape
Long (lift)
169
Pheasant win shape
Short/rounded wing (maneuverable)
170
Swallow wing shape
Streamline (streamline/fast)
171
Hawk
Intermediate shape (maneuverable/lift)
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Penguin wing bones
Robust wing with thick bones (swimming)
173
Auk wing bones
Medium bones (blinking)
174
Sea gull wing bone
Thin/long bones (soaring)
175
Synsacrum
Rigid skeleton resists aerodynamic forces
176
Why fly?
Travel distances/migrate, catch prey
177
Tubular hollow bones
Lighten skeleton
178
Synsacrum parts
Sacrum and pelvic girdle
179
Early Mesozoic (200 mya)
True amphibians and true reptiles
180
True amphibians
Frogs, salamander, and caecilians
181
True reptiles
Turtles, crocodiles, squamatrs, tuatara
182
Tuatara
Reptile from Jurassic period
183
Age of reptiles
Mesozoic
184
Ichthyosaurs
Dolphin-like, 30 ft long, air breathing through mouth
185
Plesiosaurs
Pattle-like limbs, air breathing, 2 types: long 70 vertebrae neck and short neck. e.i. Loch Ness
186
Pterosaurs
Powered flight, pinky extended to become wing, coastal, needle teeth
187
Dinosaur types
Saurischians and ornithischians
188
Saurischians
Ischium hip down, "lizard hip"
189
Ornithischians
Ischium hip back, "bird hip"
190
Stegosaurs
Plates down back (heat/protection) and spiked tail
191
What caused dinosaur extinction?
Volcanism, climate, vegitation, asteroid
192
Asteroid
Eukenane peninsula 65 mya
193
Age of mammals
Cenozoic
194
Mesozoic-Triassic
First mammals
195
Lineages of mammals
Monotremes, theria, eutheria
196
Monotremes
Lay eggs. e.i. Platypus, spiny anteater
197
Theria
Pouched marsupials
198
Eutheria
Placental mammals
199
Saber-toothed mammals
2 Placental (e.i cat and nimravid cat-like) and 1 marcupial
200
Late Cenozoic
Humans
201
Human species
Homo habalis ("handy man"), homo erectus, homo ergaster, homo neanderthalensis, homo sapien
202
Homo neanderthalensis
Extinct 10-12 thousand years ago
203
Homo sapien
100 thousand years ago
204
Mid-Cenozoic
Decline in North American mammal diversity
205
Ectotherms
"Cold blooded"
206
Endotherms
Warm blooded
207
Predictor prey ratio of dinosaurs
Less predators shows endotherm. Cod be chance fossils
208
Insulation of dinosaurs
Feathers first in dinosaurs. Shows endotherm. Could be sexual
209
Latitudinal distribution of dinosaurs
Spread to poles shows endotherm. Could be migration
